Differential Auxin-Transporting Activities of PIN-FORMED Proteins in Arabidopsis Root Hair Cells

The Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) genome includes eight PIN-FORMED (PIN) members that are molecularly diverged. To comparatively examine their differences in auxin-transporting activity and subcellular behaviors, we expressed seven PIN proteins specifically in Arabidopsis root hairs and analyzed their activities in terms of the degree of PIN-mediated root hair inhibition or enhancement and determined their subcellular localization. Expression of six PINs (PIN1–PIN4, PIN7, and PIN8) in root hair cells greatly inhibited root hair growth, most likely by lowering auxin levels in the root hair cell by their auxin efflux activities. The auxin efflux activity of PIN8, which had not been previously demonstrated, was further confirmed using a tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) cell assay system. In accordance with these results, those PINs were localized in the plasma membrane, where they likely export auxin to the apoplast and formed internal compartments in response to brefeldin A. These six PINs conferred different degrees of root hair inhibition and sensitivities to auxin or auxin transport inhibitors. Conversely, PIN5 mostly localized to internal compartments, and its expression in root hair cells rather slightly stimulated hair growth, implying that PIN5 enhanced internal auxin availability. These results suggest that different PINs behave differentially in catalyzing auxin transport depending upon their molecular activity and subcellular localization in the root hair cell.Auxin plays a critical role in plant development and growth by forming local concentration gradients. Local auxin gradients, created by the polar cell-to-cell movement of auxin, are implicated in primary axis formation, root meristem patterning, lateral organ formation, and tropic movements of shoots and roots (for recent review, see Vanneste and Friml, 2009). The cell-to-cell movement of auxin is achieved by auxin influx and efflux transporters such as AUXIN-RESISTANT1 (AUX1)/LIKE-AUX1 for influx and PIN-FORMED (PIN) and the P-glycoprotein (PGP) of ABCB (ATP-binding cassette-type transporter subfamily B) for efflux. Since diffusive efflux of the natural auxin indole-3-acetic acid (IAA; pKa = 4.75) is not favorable and PINs are localized in the plasma membrane in a polar manner, PINs act as rate-limiting factors for cellular auxin efflux and polar auxin transport through the plant body. These PINs'' properties explain why representative physiological effects of auxin transport are associated with PINs.Auxin flows from young aerial parts all the way down to the root tip columella in which an auxin maximum is formed for root stem cell maintenance and moves up toward the root differentiation zone through root epidermal cells, where a part of it travels back to the root tip via cortical cells (Blilou et al., 2005). This directional auxin flow is supported by the polar localization of PINs: PIN1, PIN3, and PIN7 at the basal side of stele cells (Friml et al., 2002a, 2002b; Blilou et al., 2005), PIN4 at the basal side in root stem cells (Friml et al., 2002a), and PIN2 at the upper side of root epidermis and at the basal side of the root cortex (Luschnig et al., 1998; Müller et al., 1998). Another interesting aspect of PIN-mediated auxin transport is the dynamics in directionality of auxin flow due to environmental stimuli-directed changes of subcellular PIN polarity, as exemplified for PIN3, whose subcellular localization changes in response to the gravity vector (Friml et al., 2002b).An intriguing question is how different PIN proteins have different subcellular polarities, which might be attributable to PIN-specific molecular properties, cell-type-specific factors, or both. The different PIN subcellular polarities in different cell types seemingly indicate that cell-type-specific factors are involved in polarity. In the case of PIN1, however, both classes of factors appear to affect its subcellular localization because when expressed under the PIN2 promoter, PIN1 localizes to the upper or basal side of root epidermal cells, depending on the GFP insertion site of the protein (Wiśniewska et al., 2006). A recent study demonstrated that the polar targeting of PIN proteins is modulated by phosphorylation/dephosphorylation of the central hydrophilic loop of PINs, which is mediated by PINOID (PID; a Ser/Thr protein kinase)/PP2A phosphatase (Michniewicz et al., 2007). The central hydrophilic domain of PINs might provide the molecule-specific cue for PIN polarity, together with as yet unknown cell-specific factors. Different recycling behaviors of PINs, which show variable sensitivities to brefeldin A (BFA), also imply different molecular characters among PIN species. Most PIN1 proteins are internalized by BFA treatment, whereas considerable amounts of PIN2 remain in the plasma membrane in addition to internal accumulation after BFA treatment. Recycling and basal polar targeting of PIN1 is dependent on the BFA-sensitive guanine nucleotide exchange factor for adenosyl ribosylation factors (ARF GEFs), GNOM, which is the major target of BFA. In contrast, apical targeting and recycling of PIN2 is independent of GNOM and controlled by BFA-resistant ARF GEFs (Geldner et al., 2003; Kleine-Vehn and Friml, 2008).In contrast to their distinct subcellular localizations, the differential auxin-transporting activities of PINs remain to be studied. The divergent primary structures of PIN proteins are not only indicative of differential subcellular polarity, but also would represent their differential catalytic activities for auxin transport. The auxin efflux activities of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) PINs have been demonstrated using Arabidopsis and heterologous systems: PIN1 and PIN5 in Arabidopsis cells (Petrásek et al., 2006; Mravec et al., 2009); PIN2, PIN3, PIN4, PIN6, and PIN7 in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) Bright Yellow-2 (BY-2) cells (Lee and Cho, 2006; Petrásek et al., 2006; Mravec et al., 2008); PIN1, PIN2, PIN5, and PIN7 in yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) cells (Petrásek et al., 2006; Blakeslee et al., 2007; Mravec et al., 2009; Yang and Murphy, 2009); and PIN1, PIN2, and PIN7 in HeLa cells (Petrásek et al., 2006; Blakeslee et al., 2007). Among the eight Arabidopsis PIN members, PIN1, PIN2, PIN3, PIN4, PIN6, and PIN7, which share a similar molecular structure in terms of the presence of a long central loop (hereafter called long-looped PINs; Fig. 1A; Supplemental Fig. S1), have been shown to catalyze auxin efflux at the cellular level. On the other hand, PIN5 and PIN8 possess a very short putative central loop (hereafter called short-looped PINs). Although PIN5 was recently shown to be localized in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and proposed to transport auxin metabolites into the ER lumen, its cellular function regarding its intracellular auxin-transporting activity has not been shown, and the auxin-transporting activity of PIN8 has yet to be demonstrated. In spite of the same transport directionality (auxin efflux) and similar molecular structures, the long-looped PINs exhibit sequence divergence not only in their central loop, but also in certain residues of the transmembrane domains. This structural divergence of long-looped PINs might be indicative of their differential auxin-transporting activities, which have not yet been quantitatively compared.Open in a separate windowFigure 1.Differential activities of PINs in the Arabidopsis root hair. A, Two distinctive PIN groups with different central hydrophilic loop sizes. Topology of PIN proteins was predicted by four different programs as described in Supplemental Figure S1. Numbers above indicate the number of transmembrane helices for each N- and C-terminal region, and numbers below indicate the number of amino acid residues of the central hydrophilic domain. B, Representative root images of control (Cont; Columbia-0) and root-hair-specific PIN-overexpressing (PINox; ProE7:PIN-GFP or ProE7:PIN [−]) plants. Bar = 100 μm for all. C, Root hair lengths of control and PINox plants. Six to 12 independent transgenic lines (average = 8.3), and 42 to 243 roots (average = 86.8) and 336 to 2,187 root hairs (average = 727.8) per construct, were observed for the estimation of root hair length. Data represent means ± se. The root hair lengths of PIN5ox lines were significantly longer than those of the control (P = 0.016 for PIN5ox; P < 0.0001 for PIN5-GFP1ox and PIN5-GFP2ox).To comparatively assess the cytological behaviors and molecular activities of different PIN members, it would be favorable to use a single assay system that provides a consistent cellular environment and enables quantitative estimation of PIN activity. In previous studies, we adopted the root hair single cell system to quantitatively assay auxin-transporting or regulatory activities of PINs, PGPs, AUX1, and PID (Lee and Cho, 2006; Cho et al., 2007a). Root hair growth is proportional to internal auxin levels in the root hair cell. Therefore, auxin efflux inhibits and auxin influx enhances root hair growth (Cho et al., 2007b; Lee and Cho, 2008). In addition, the use of a root-hair-specific promoter (Cho and Cosgrove, 2002; Kim et al., 2006) for expression of auxin transporters enables the transporters'' biological effect to be pinpointed to only the root hair cell, thus excluding probable non-cell-autonomous effects that could be caused by the general expression of auxin transporters.In this study, we expressed five long-looped PINs (PIN1, PIN2, PIN3, PIN4, and PIN7) and two short-looped PINs (PIN5 and PIN8) in root hair cells and compared their auxin-transporting activities and cytological dynamics. To directly measure the radiolabeled auxin-transporting activities of PIN5 and PIN8, we used an additional assay system, tobacco suspension cells. Our data revealed that PINs have differential molecular activities and pharmacological responses and that the short-looped and long-looped PINs have different subcellular localizations.     

双抗双高夏大豆种质鲁99-2的选育

优良种质创新是大豆新品种选育的关键。经过近20年的中间种质创新、亲本筛选、抗性选育、鉴定和品质检验等研究,育成了双抗双高的夏大豆优良种质鲁99-2。其对大豆胞囊线虫1、3、5号生理小种的抗性均为1级;对大豆花叶病毒y6株系的抗性也为1级;籽粒脂肪含量平均为22．09％,高值为22．67％;蛋白质含量平均为43．29％,高值为45．0％;蛋白质和脂肪合计含量平均为65．38％,高值达66．40％。鲁99-2的育成说明创造和利用优良种质、选择适宜的杂交亲本和采用有效的选育方法等对大豆育种至关重要。     

Quality Evaluation of Traditional Chinese Medicine Mylabris Based on Heavy Metal Risk Assessment and Analysis of Pharmacological Component Contents

As a highly representative traditional Chinese anti-tumor medicinal material, the biomass of Mylabris is collected from the wild. However, the living environments of Mylabris is differ, so Mylabris may be contaminated by heavy metal pollution depending on the environment. These environments may also affect the amount of biosynthesis of its medicinal ingredient, cantharidin, there by affecting the quality of Mylabris. In this study, we determined the heavy metal content in Mylabris from different origins by using ICP-MS, evaluated the risk posed by these heavy metals, and recommended theoretical maximum limits of heavy metals in medicinal Mylabris. The results show that the Cu content in Mylabris is substantially higher than that in Cr, As, Pb, Cd, and Hg. A quantitative risk assessment showed that Mylabris poses no noncarcinogenic risks. The results of the total carcinogenic risk value showed that origins S12 and S13 pose carcinogenic risk by Cr and As, and the rest of the origins were in the human-tolerable carcinogenic risk range. We found large differences in the cantharidin content in Mylabris from different origins. In general, the Mylabris from origins S2, S3 and S4 had a higher in vivo cantharidin content, which proved that the quality of the medicinal materials was higher here than in other production areas. Finally, we providing a reference for the quality evaluation of medicinal Mylabris materials.