Landscape genetics of California mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus): the roles of ecological and historical factors in generating differentiation

Landscape genetics is an emerging discipline that utilizes environmental and historical data to understand geographic patterns of genetic diversity. Niche modelling has added a new dimension to such efforts by allowing species–environmental associations to be projected into the past so that hypotheses about historical vicariance can be generated and tested independently with genetic data. However, previous approaches have primarily utilized DNA sequence data to test inferences about historical isolation and may have missed very recent episodes of environmentally mediated divergence. We type 15 microsatellite loci in California mule deer and identify five genetic groupings through a Structure analysis that are also well predicted by environmental data. We project the niches of these five deer ecotypes to the last glacial maximum (LGM) and show they overlap to a much greater extent than today, suggesting that vicariance associated with the LGM cannot explain the present-day genetic patterns. Further, we analyse mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence trees to search for evidence of historical vicariance and find only two well-supported clades. A coalescence-based analysis of mtDNA data shows that the genetic divergence of the mule deer genetic clusters in California is recent and appears to be mediated by ecological factors. The importance of environmental factors in explaining the genetic diversity of California mule deer is unexpected given that they are highly mobile species and have a broad habitat distribution. Geographic differences in the timing of reproduction and peak vegetation as well as habitat choice reflecting natal origin may explain the persistence of genetic subdivision.     

Hearing Range of White-Tailed Deer as Determined by Auditory Brainstem Response

Abstract: Basic knowledge of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) hearing can improve understanding of deer behavior and may assist in the development of effective deterrent strategies. Using auditory brainstem response testing, we determined that white-tailed deer hear within the range of frequencies we tested, between 0.25–30 kilohertz (kHz), with best sensitivity between 4–8 kHz. The upper limit of human hearing lies at about 20 kHz, whereas we demonstrated that white-tailed deer detected frequencies to at least 30 kHz. This difference suggests that research on the use of ultrasonic (frequencies >20 kHz) auditory deterrents is justified as a possible means of reducing deer—human conflicts.     

Post-Soviet steppe management causes pronounced synanthropy in the globally threatened Sociable Lapwing Vanellus gregarius

Habitat associations and distribution of breeding Sociable Lapwings were examined in 2004–2008 in central Kazakhstan to develop and assess hypotheses relating to the species' decline and high conservation threat status. At a landscape scale, breeding colonies were strongly positively associated with villages and rivers. Habitat suitability models had very high predictive power and suggested that only 6.6–8.0% of the 30 000-km² study area was potentially suitable for Sociable Lapwings. Models developed to describe the spatial distribution of nests in one region of Kazakhstan in one year predicted well the distribution of nests in another region, suggesting good generality. At a colony scale, nests were most likely to be found in the most heavily grazed areas, with a high cover of animal dung and bare ground. Despite the low density of human settlements in the study area, most Sociable Lapwing nests were < 2 km from a village. Patterns of grazing were assessed by fitting GPS loggers to cattle. There was a strong positive correlation around villages between grazing intensity and the density of Sociable Lapwing nests, with clear evidence of a threshold of grazing density that needs to be reached before birds will breed. This high degree of synanthropy, perhaps unique in a critically endangered bird, is likely to result from post-Soviet changes in steppe management and offers both threats and opportunities to the species' conservation.     

Potato spindle tuber viroid: the simplicity paradox resolved?

Taxonomy:   Potato spindle tuber viroid (PSTVd) is the type species of the genus Posipiviroid , family Pospiviroidae . An absence of hammerhead ribozymes and the presence of a 'central conserved region' distinguish PSTVd and related viroids from members of a second viroid family, the Avsunviroidae .
Physical properties:   Viroids are small, unencapsidated, circular, single-stranded RNA molecules which replicate autonomously when inoculated into host plants. Because viroids are non-protein-coding RNAs, designation of the more abundant, highly infectious polarity strand as the positive strand is arbitrary. PSTVd assumes a rod-like, highly structured conformation that is resistant to nuclease degradation in vitro . Naturally occurring sequence variants of PSTVd range in size from 356 to 361 nt.
Hosts and symptoms:   The natural host range of PSTVd—cultivated potato, certain other Solanum spp., and avocado—appears to be quite limited. Foliar symptoms in potato are often obscure, and the severity of tuber symptoms (elongation with the appearance of prominent bud scales/eyebrows and growth cracks) depends on both temperature and length of infection. PSTVd has a broad experimental host range, especially among solanaceous species, and strains are classified as mild, intermediate or severe based upon the symptoms observed in sensitive tomato cultivars. These symptoms include shortening of internodes, petioles and mid-ribs, severe epinasty and wrinkling of the leaves, and necrosis of mid-ribs, petioles and stems.     

Experimental herbivory of native Australian macrophytes by the introduced Mozambique tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus

This study describes experimental herbivory and detritivory of three common native aquatic macrophyte species by the introduced Mozambique tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters) (Pisces: Cichlidae), and its physiological response to their consumption. There was a highly significant effect of fish herbivory on plant weight for each of the macrophyte species, but this effect was not influenced by any preference for periphyton. Despite the herbivory, there was a highly significant loss of fish body weight across all plant species and weight could only be maintained by supplementary feeding of a high protein fish flake. These results suggest that despite eating these plants, an alternative food resource may be needed for survival and may trigger trophic plasticity in O. mossambicus.     

Habitat Characteristics of Lowland Leopard Frogs in Mountain Canyons of Southeastern Arizona

Abstract: Many aquatic species in the arid southwestern United States are imperiled, persisting primarily in isolated, low-order streams that are increasingly vulnerable to stochastic disturbances. During 2003 and 2004, we surveyed 39 mountain canyons in southeastern Arizona, USA, for lowland leopard frogs (Rana yavapaiensis), a species that has declined in abundance and distribution across its range in the United States. We quantified habitat features at 2 spatial scales, canyon and pool, to identify features that distinguished sites inhabited by frogs from those uninhabited by frogs. Canyons inhabited by frogs had watersheds that averaged 8.1 km² larger (SE = 2.52), pools that averaged 37.8 m³ greater (9.30) in volume, gradients that averaged 4.1% (1.40%) less steep, and locations that averaged 3.2 km closer (1.06) to the nearest valley stream than did uninhabited canyons. Plunge pools inhabited by frogs averaged 13.5% (5.66%) more perimeter vegetation, 11.2% (5.34%) more canopy cover, and 1.9 (0.60) more refuges than uninhabited pools. In general, canyons that provided more perennial water during dry summer months and plunge pools that provided more bank heterogeneity were more likely to be inhabited by frogs. Conservation of lowland leopard frogs and other aquatic species that inhabit xeric systems in the southwestern United States depends principally on maintaining riparian ecosystems that provide habitat for these species and the adjacent uplands that influence the structure and function of these systems. Therefore, both riparian areas and their adjacent uplands must be managed to maintain habitat for organisms that inhabit these rare and diverse ecosystems.     

Registered Pesticides and Citrus Terpenes as Blackbird Repellents for Rice

Abstract: Nonlethal management alternatives are needed to minimize bird depredation of agricultural crops. We conducted 8 caged feeding tests and 2 field studies to evaluate 2 registered fungicides (GWN-4770, Gowan Company, Yuma, AZ; Quadris®, Syngenta Crop Protection, Greensboro, NC), a neem oil insecticide (Aza-Direct®, Gowan Company), and a novel terpene formulation (Gander Gone, Natural Earth Products, Winter Springs, FL) as avian repellents. For all candidate repellents, red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) discriminated between untreated and treated rice during preference-testing in captivity. We observed a positive concentration-response relationship among birds offered rice treated with 2,500 ppm, 5,000 ppm, 7,500 ppm, 11,000 ppm, or 22,000 ppm GWN-4770. Relative to pretreatment, blackbirds consumed 34% and 77% less rice treated with 11,000 ppm and 22,000 ppm GWN-4770, respectively, during the concentration-response test. Maximum repellency among other tested compounds was <40% during the concentration-response test. Blackbirds consumed 28% of rice seeds treated with 20,000 ppm GWN-4770 and 68% of untreated seeds broadcast within rice fields in southwestern Louisiana, USA. We observed 50% fewer unprotected seedlings than those treated with 10,000 ppm GWN-4770 within a drill-seeded rice field in southeastern Missouri, USA. The manufacturer subsequently applied for a United States patent for the active ingredient of GWN-4770 as an avian repellent. Although additional registration criteria and formulation optimization must be satisfied to enable the commercial availability of GWN-4770 as an avian repellent, additional efficacy studies of GWN-4770 and other promising repellents under extended field conditions are warranted for protection of newly planted and ripening rice.     

An Analysis of Specific Temperature Blocks in the Conjugation Sequence of Paramecium tetraurelia1

ABSTRACT. Temperature shifts have been used to block critical points in the conjugation sequence of Paramecium tetraurelia. Increasing temperatures above 27^°C reduced ciliary agglutination, pair formation, and nuclear exchange; a complete inhibition of these stages occurred at 37^°C. Temperatures below 19^°C had no effect on ciliary agglutination or nuclear exchange but completely inhibited pair formation. The bases for the cells’ inability to form pairs at 19^°C and 37^°C were sought. Cells placed below 19^°C were unable to deciliate or fuse membranes in the holdfast region; at 37^°C, membrane fusion in both the holdfast and paroral regions was prevented. Time course studies on cross-fertilization reveal that temperatures 35^°C block all stages of the process up to the actual exchange of pronuclei. After the exchange has begun, the process continues despite the elevated temperature. Temperature shifts are discussed as a means of conditionally blocking critical points in the developmental program of conjugation.     

Molecular phylogeny reveals the repeated evolution of complex male genital traits in the New Zealand moth genus Izatha (Lepidoptera: Xyloryctidae)

Male genitalia are among the most rapidly evolving and divergent morphological structures and sexual selection is known to drive this phenomenon in many taxa. Because of their diversity, even within a single genus, genital characters are frequently used to infer relationships among closely‐related species. Moths within the genus Izatha (Xyloryctidae) are ideal candidates for investigating the phylogenetic patterns of genital evolution as they display great variation in male genital structure and complexity. We determined the evolutionary relationships among 31 species of Izatha by constructing a molecular phylogeny of the genus based on the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I gene and the isocitrate dehydrogenase and carbamoylphosphate synthase domain protein nuclear genes. This allowed estimations of ancestral male genital character states and patterns of male genital diversification using maximum‐likelihood models. The genus is divided into two well‐supported clades and two poorly supported clades at the root of the phylogeny with incomplete phylogenetic resolution within two species groups, likely due to rapid speciation. Izatha display a number of apomorphic phallic traits including cornuti (sclerotized spines) which are either discharged into the female during copulation (deciduous cornuti) or fixed to the male phallus (compound and fish‐hook cornuti). Within the genus, there is a reduction of secondary genital characters – the uncus and gnathos – but an elaboration of another grasping structure, the juxta; the potential origin and functionality of these male genital traits are discussed. Overall, some male genital characters provided a good indication of species relationships; however, several parts of the complex male genitalia of Izatha show evidence of homoplasy and convergence highlighting the problems of using these traits in determining species relationships. Additionally, this convergence has highlighted that complex genital structures may evolve repeatedly and independently within a lineage.