Two closely linked tomato HKT coding genes are positional candidates for the major tomato QTL involved in Na+/K+ homeostasis

The location of major quantitative trait loci (QTL) contributing to stem and leaf [Na⁺] and [K⁺] was previously reported in chromosome 7 using two connected populations of recombinant inbred lines (RILs) of tomato. HKT1;1 and HKT1;2, two tomato Na⁺‐selective class I‐HKT transporters, were found to be closely linked, where the maximum logarithm of odds (LOD) score for these QTLs located. When a chromosome 7 linkage map based on 278 single‐nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) was used, the maximum LOD score position was only 35 kb from HKT1;1 and HKT1;2. Their expression patterns and phenotypic effects were further investigated in two near‐isogenic lines (NILs): 157‐14 (double homozygote for the cheesmaniae alleles) and 157‐17 (double homozygote for the lycopersicum alleles). The expression pattern for the HKT1;1 and HKT1;2 alleles was complex, possibly because of differences in their promoter sequences. High salinity had very little effect on root dry and fresh weight and consequently on the plant dry weight of NIL 157‐14 in comparison with 157‐17. A significant difference between NILs was also found for [K⁺] and the [Na⁺]/[K⁺] ratio in leaf and stem but not for [Na⁺] arising a disagreement with the corresponding RIL population. Their association with leaf [Na⁺] and salt tolerance in tomato is also discussed.     

Multivalent ligand–receptor binding on supported lipid bilayers

Fluid supported lipid bilayers provide an excellent platform for studying multivalent protein–ligand interactions because the two-dimensional fluidity of the membrane allows for lateral rearrangement of ligands in order to optimize binding. Our laboratory has combined supported lipid bilayer-coated microfluidic platforms with total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM) to obtain equilibrium dissociation constant (K_D) data for these systems. This high throughput, on-chip approach provides highly accurate thermodynamic information about multivalent binding events while requiring only very small sample volumes. Herein, we review some of the most salient findings from these studies. In particular, increasing ligand density on the membrane surface can provide a modest enhancement or attenuation of ligand–receptor binding depending upon whether the surface ligands interact strongly with each other. Such effects, however, lead to little more than one order of magnitude change in the apparent K_D values. On the other hand, the lipophilicity and presentation of lipid bilayer-conjugated ligands can have a much greater impact. Indeed, changing the way a particular ligand is conjugated to the membrane can alter the apparent K_D value by at least three orders of magnitude. Such a result speaks strongly to the role of ligand availability for multivalent ligand–receptor binding.     

Membrane Potential and Catecholamine Secretion by Bovine Adrenal Chromaffin Cells: Use of Tetraphenylphosphonium Distribution and Carbocyanine Dye Fluorescence

Changes in plasma membrane potential of isolated bovine adrenal chromaffin cells were measured independently by two chemical probe methods and related to corresponding effects on catecholamine secretion. The lipophilic cation tetraphenylphosphonium (TPP+) and the carbocyanine dye 3,3'-dipropylthiadicarbocyanine [DiS-C3-(5)] were used. The necessity of evaluating the subcellular distribution of TPP+ among cytoplasmic, mitochondrial, secretory granule, and bound compartments was demonstrated and the resting plasma membrane potential determined to be -55 mV. The relationship between membrane potential and catecholamine secretion was determined in response to variations in extracellular K+ and to the presence of several secretagogues including cholinergic receptor ligands, veratridine, and ionophores for Na+ and K+. The dependence of potential on K+ concentration fit the Goldman constant field equation with a Na/K permeability ratio of 0.1. The dependence of both K+- and veratridine-evoked catecholamine secretion on membrane potential exhibited a potential threshold of about -40 mV before a significant rise in secretion occurred. This is likely related to the threshold for opening of voltage-sensitive Ca2+ channels. Acetylcholine and nicotine evoked a large secretory response without a sufficiently sustained depolarization to be detectable by the relatively slow potential sensitive chemical probes. Decamethonium induced a detectable depolarization of the chromaffin cells. Veratridine and gramicidin evoked both membrane depolarization and catecholamine release. By contrast the K ionophore valinomycin evoked significant levels of secretion without any depolarization. This is consistent with its utilization of an intracellular source of Ca2+ and the independence of its measured secretory response on extracellular Ca2+.     

Three dimensional typological studies using scanning electron microscopy for characterization of Termitomyces pellets obtained from submerged growth conditions

There are gaps in existing understanding of fungal pellet growth dynamics. We used scanning electron microscopy (SEM) for morphological characterization of the biomass organization of Termitomyces pellets for seven species: T. microcarpus (TMI1), T. albuminosus (TAL1, TAL2), T. striatus (TSTR), T. aurantiacus (TAUR), T. heimii (THE1, THE2), T. globulus (TGLO) and T. clypeatus (TCL1, TCL2, TCL3, TCL4, TCL5). We assessed the utility of SEM for morphological and structural characterization of Termitomyces spp. in three dimensional (3D) pellet form to identify ideal pellet morphology for industrial use. Typological classification of Termitomyces species was based on furrows, isotropy, total motifs and fractal dimensions. The pellets formed were entangled and exhibited highly compacted mycelial mass with microheterogeneity and microporosity. The mean density of furrows of Termitomyces species was between 10,000 and 11,300 cm/cm², percentage isotropy was 30?80 and total motifs varied from 300 to 2500. TGLO exhibited the highest furrow mean density, 11243 cm/cm², which indicated a compact, cerebroid structure with complex ridges and furrows, whereas TAL2 exhibited the lowest furrow density. TMI1a exhibited a high percentage isotropic value, 74.6, TSTR exhibited the lowest, 30.9. Total motif number also was used as a typological classification parameter. Fractal values were 2.64?2.78 for various submerged conditions of Termitomyces species. TAL1 exhibited the highest fractal dimension and TAL2 the lowest, which indicates the complexity of branching patterns. Three-dimensional SEM image analysis can provide insight into pellet micromorphology and is a powerful tool for exploring topographical details of pellets.     

LIFE-HISTORY VARIATION AND COMPARATIVE PHYLOGEOGRAPHY OF DARTERS (PISCES: PERCIDAE) FROM THE NORTH AMERICAN CENTRAL HIGHLANDS

Phylogeography seeks to evaluate the relationship between genetic variation and geographic distribution of a species to examine the influence of historical events on divergence. Congruent phylogeographic patterns in codistributed species indicate historical association of the taxa being compared, and the uniform action of biogeographic events in shaping genetic variation. We sought to evaluate the congruence of patterns of genetic variation of five closely related fish species across a well-defined biogeographic boundary. We gathered allozymic and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence data for five species of darters (Percidae: Etheostomatini) from populations distributed among biogeographic regions in the Ozark and Ouachita highlands of the south-central United States. Comparisons among species revealed noncongruence in the magnitude of genetic divergence in both allozymes and mtDNA sequences. We hypothesized that noncongruence resulted, in part, from differences in life histories of the species in our comparison. To address this hypothesis, we evaluated the association between gene flow (measured by N_em) and variation in body size and fecundity variables because they have been shown to influence gene flow in fishes. Correlation analysis revealed an association between gene flow and fecundity (r = 0.88), but not with body size (r = 0.36) or reproductive investment per individual (r = –0.23). The result was similar when independent contrasts of the original variables were used in correlation analyses. Phylogeographic analysis of mtDNA sequence data indicated the importance of history, evident in gene trees of Percina nasuta and Percina phoxocephala. Divergence rates between these two taxa may differ because of historically persistent differences in population sizes, reflected in present-day abundance and fecundity differences. Conversely, Percina caprodes showed little evidence of divergence in mtDNA sequences and yielded the highest mean N_em values from allozyme data. Comparisons among closely related, codistributed taxa may help discriminate among the possibilities for noncongruence in biogeographic studies by allowing evaluation of the influence of life history on patterns of gene flow.     

Sea urchin Hox genes: insights into the ancestral Hox cluster

We describe the Hox cluster in the radially symmetric sea urchin and compare our findings to what is known from clusters in bilaterally symmetric animals. Several Hox genes from the direct-developing sea urchin Heliocidaris erythrogramma are described. CHEF gel analysis shows that the Hox genes are clustered on a < or = 300 kilobase (kb) fragment of DNA, and only a single cluster is present, as in lower chordates and other nonvertebrate metazoans. Phylogenetic analyses of sea urchin, amphioxus, Drosophila, and selected vertebrate Hox genes confirm that the H. erythrogramma genes, and others previously cloned from other sea urchins, belong to anterior, central, and posterior groups. Despite their radial body plan and lack of cephalization, echinoderms retain at least one of the anterior group Hox genes, an orthologue of Hox3. The structure of the echinoderm Hox cluster suggests that the ancestral deuterostome had a Hox cluster more similar to the current chordate cluster than was expected Sea urchins have at least three Abd-B type genes, suggesting that Abd-B expansion began before the radiation of deuterostomes.      

Rapid separation of bacteria from blood—review and outlook

The high morbidity and mortality rate of bloodstream infections involving antibiotic‐resistant bacteria necessitate a rapid identification of the infectious organism and its resistance profile. Traditional methods based on culturing the blood typically require at least 24 h, and genetic amplification by PCR in the presence of blood components has been problematic. The rapid separation of bacteria from blood would facilitate their genetic identification by PCR or other methods so that the proper antibiotic regimen can quickly be selected for the septic patient. Microfluidic systems that separate bacteria from whole blood have been developed, but these are designed to process only microliter quantities of whole blood or only highly diluted blood. However, symptoms of clinical blood infections can be manifest with bacterial burdens perhaps as low as 10 CFU/mL, and thus milliliter quantities of blood must be processed to collect enough bacteria for reliable genetic analysis. This review considers the advantages and shortcomings of various methods to separate bacteria from blood, with emphasis on techniques that can be done in less than 10 min on milliliter‐quantities of whole blood. These techniques include filtration, screening, centrifugation, sedimentation, hydrodynamic focusing, chemical capture on surfaces or beads, field‐flow fractionation, and dielectrophoresis. Techniques with the most promise include screening, sedimentation, and magnetic bead capture, as they allow large quantities of blood to be processed quickly. Some microfluidic techniques can be scaled up. © 2016 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Biotechnol. Prog., 32:823–839, 2016     

Decreased DNA repair in familial Alzheimer's disease

Alterations in the capacity of a cell to repair DNA lesions play an important role in a number of human diseases. We and others have demonstrated defective DNA repair of alkylation damage in cells from patients with Alzheimer's disease. It has been hypothesized that this defect is related to the cause of Alzheimer's disease and results in the accumulation of lesions in the central nervous system neurons. One prediction of this hypothesis is that in dominantly inherited Alzheimer's disease, the repair defect will be present in half of the offspring of affected patients long before they develop symptoms of the disease. In order to test the hypothesis that decreased DNA repair is responsible for familial Alzheimer's disease and their at-risk offspring we have studied DNA repair in these individuals after exposure of lymphoblasts to alkylating agents. Our results indicate that cell lines from affected patients repair significantly less damage in 3 h than cell lines from healthy controls. A small number of at-risk individuals were also studied and some of these had lower levels of repair, although more cell lines from individuals in this group must be studied. These findings provide further support for defective DNA repair playing a role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease.     

DETERMINATION OF IODINE CONCENTRATION AND DISTRIBUTION IN RAT THYROID FOLLICLES BY ELECTRON-PROBE MICROANALYSIS

The concentration and the distribution of iodine in various sized follicles of rat thyroid glands have been analyzed by electron-probe microanalysis. The results of the iodine analysis were grouped according to uncorrected lumen diameter size. No significant differences in iodine concentration were observed among the various size categories. When the results for all follicles from a given sample were pooled, the standard error of the mean was approximately 4%. Usually 40–50 follicles per animal were analyzed. The concentration of iodine ranged from 0.9 to 2.1% by weight among individual animals. Scanning pictures and step-scan analysis showed the iodine distribution to be quite uniform across the colloid area. Several techniques of sample preparation were used; they produced no significant differences in the iodine concentrations observed. Sodium concentration, also determined in all samples, was found to vary from 2 to 9% by weight. Because of the mobility of the sodium ion, its distribution was greatly affected by the method of sample preparation. The technique that best preserved the natural chemistry of the sample was that of freezing the tissue, sectioning, and then freeze-drying.