Protease-activated receptors (PAR1 and PAR2) contribute to tumor cell motility and metastasis

The effects of the pleiotropic serine protease thrombin on tumor cells are commonly thought to be mediated by the thrombin receptor protease-activated receptor 1 (PAR1). We demonstrate here that PAR1 activation has a role in experimental metastasis using the anti-PAR1 antibodies ATAP2 and WEDE15, which block PAR1 cleavage and activation. Thrombin also stimulates chemokinesis of human melanoma cells toward fibroblast conditioned media and soluble matrix proteins. Thrombin-enhanced migration is abolished by anti-PAR1 antibodies, demonstrating that PAR1 cleavage and activation are required. The PAR1-specific agonist peptide TFLLRNPNDK, however, does not stimulate migration, indicating that PAR1 activation is not sufficient. In contrast, a combination of TFLLRNPNDK and the PAR2 agonist peptide SLIGRL mimics the thrombin effect on migration, whereas PAR2 agonist alone has no effect. Agonist peptides for the thrombin receptors PAR3 and PAR4 used alone or with PAR1 agonist also have no effect. Similarly, activation of PAR1 and PAR2 also enhances chemokinesis of prostate cancer cells. Desensitization with PAR2 agonist abolishes thrombin-enhanced cell motility, demonstrating that thrombin acts through PAR2. PAR2 is cleaved by proteases with trypsin-like specificity but not by thrombin. Thrombin enhances migration in the presence of a cleavage-blocking anti-PAR2 antibody, suggesting that thrombin activates PAR2 indirectly and independent of receptor cleavage. Treatment of melanoma cells with trypsin or PAR2 agonist peptide enhances experimental metastasis. Together, these data confirm a role for PAR1 in migration and metastasis and demonstrate an unexpected role for PAR2 in thrombin-dependent tumor cell migration and in metastasis.     

3D QSAR studies on peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ agonists using CoMFA and CoMSIA

The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) have increasingly become attractive targets for developing novel anti-type 2 diabetic drugs. We employed comparative molecular field analysis (CoMFA) and comparative molecular similarity indices analysis (CoMSIA) to study three-dimensional quantitative structure–activity relationship (3D QSAR) based on existing agonists of PPAR (including five thiazolidinediones and 74 tyrosine-based compounds). Predictive 3D QSAR models with conventional r² and cross-validated coefficient (q²) values up to 0.974 and 0.642 for CoMFA and 0.979 and 0.686 for COMSIA were established using the SYBYL package. These models were validated by a test set containing 18 compounds. The CoMFA and CoMSIA field distributions are in general agreement with the structural characteristics of the binding pockets of PPAR, which demonstrates that the 3D QSAR models built here are very useful in predicting activities of novel compounds for activating PPAR.      

Scd1 ab-Xyk : a new asebia allele characterized by a CCC trinucleotide insertion in exon 5 of the stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 gene in mouse

We describe here a spontaneous, autosomal recessive mutant mouse suffering from skin and hair defects, which arose in the outbred Kunming strain. By haplotype analysis and direct sequencing of PCR products, we show that this mutation is a new allele of the asebia locus with a naturally occurring mutation in the Scd1 gene (a CCC insertion at nucleotide position 835 in exon 5), which codes for stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1. This mutation introduces an extra proline residue at position 279 in the Scd1 protein. The mutant mice, originally designated km/km but now assigned the name Scd1 ^ab-Xyk (hereafter abbreviated as ab ^Xyk / ab ^Xyk ), have a similar gross and histological phenotype to that reported for previously characterized allelic asebia mutations ( Scd1 ^ab , Scd1 ^abJ , Scd1 ^ab2J , and Scd1 ^tm1Ntam ). Histological analysis showed they were also characterized by hypoplasic sebaceous glands and abnormal hair follicles. In a cross between Kunming- ab ^Xyk / ab ^Xyk and ABJ/Le- ab ^J / ab ^J mice, all the progeny showed the same phenotype, indicating that the two mutations were non-complementing and therefore allelic. Comparisons with the other four allelic mutants indicate that the Scd1 ^ab-Xyk mutation causes the mildest change in Scd1 function. This new mouse mutant is a good model not only for the study of scarring alopecias in humans, which are characterized by hypoplasic sebaceous glands, but also for studying the structure and function of the Scd1 protein.Communicated by G. ReuterThe first two authors contribute equally to this work     

Modeling and simulation of fed-batch protein refolding process

The simplified kinetic model that assumes competition between first-order folding and third-order aggregation was used to model the fed-batch refolding of denatured-reduced lysozyme. It was found that the model was able to describe the process at limited concentration ranges, i.e., 1-2 and 5-7 mg mL(-)(1), respectively, at extensive guanidinium chloride (GdmCl) concentrations and controlled concentrations of oxidizing and reducing agents. The folding or aggregation rate constant was different at the two protein concentration ranges and strongly dependent on the denaturant concentration. As a result, both rate constants at the two concentration ranges were expressed as functions of GdmCl concentration. The rate constants determined by fed-batch experiments could be employed for the prediction of the fed-batch process but were not able to be extended to a batch refolding by direct dilution. Computer simulations show that the denaturant concentration and fed-batch flow rate are important factors influencing the refolding yield. Prolonged fed-batch time is beneficial to keep the transient intermediate concentration at a low level and to increase the yield of correctly folded protein. This is of importance when the denaturant concentration in refolding buffer solution is low. Thus, at a low denaturant concentration, fed-batch time should be sufficiently long, whereas at an appropriately high GdmCl concentration, a short fed-batch time or a high feed rate of the denatured protein is effective to give a high refolding yield.     

Near-infrared optical imaging of integrin alphavbeta3 in human tumor xenografts

In vivo optical imaging is potentially useful for evaluating the presence of tumor markers that are targets of molecular medicine. Here we report the synthesis and characterization of integrin alphavbeta3-targeted peptide cyclo(Lys-Arg-Gly-Asp-Phe) [c(KRGDf )] labeled with fluorescence dyes with wavelength spanning from the visible/near infrared (Cy5.5) to the true near infrared (IRDye800) for optical imaging. In vitro, the peptide-dye conjugates bound specifically to tumor cells expressing alphavbeta3. When administered intravenously into mice at a dose of 6 nmol /mouse, the conjugates accumulated in tumors expressing alphavbeta3. The tumor-to-background ratios for human KS1767 Kaposi's sarcoma in mice injected with Cy5.5-c(KRGDf ) and Cy5.5 were 5.5 and 1.5, respectively. Preinjection of c(KRGDf ) blocked the uptake of Cy5.5-c(KRGDf ) in tumors by 89%. In alphavbeta3-positive M21 and alphavbeta3-negative M21-L human melanoma, fluorescence intensity in the tumor of mice injected with IRDye800 - c(KRGDf ) was 2.3 and 1.3 times that in normal tissue, respectively. Dynamic imaging revealed that Cy5.5- c(KRGDf ) was rapidly taken up by KS1767 tumor immediately after bolus injection. The rate of its uptake in the tumor was reduced by preinjection of c(KRGDf ) in an interval time-dependent manner. Our data suggest that near-infrared fluorescence imaging may be applied to the detection of tumors expressing integrin alphavbeta3 and to the assessment of the optimal biological dose and schedule of targeted therapies.     

Homoepiboxidines: further potent agonists for nicotinic receptors

Homoepiboxidine (3) and the corresponding N-methyl (4) and N-benzyl (5) derivatives were prepared from a 6beta-carbomethoxynortropane (8). Affinities and functional activities at neuromuscular, central neuronal and ganglionic-type nicotinic receptors were compared to those of epibatidine 1, and epiboxidine 2. Homoepiboxidine had equivalent affinity/activity to epiboxidine at neuromuscular, neuronal alpha4beta2, and most alpha3-containing ganglionic-type nicotinic receptors. The N-substituted derivatives showed reduced affinity/activity at most receptor subtypes. Replacement of the methylisoxazole moiety of 3 and 4 with a methyloxadiazole moiety provided analogues 6 and 7, which had greatly reduced affinity/activity in virtually all assays at nicotinic receptors. Marked analgetic activity in mice occurred at the following ip doses: epibatidine 10 microg/kg; epiboxidine 25 microg/kg; homoepiboxidine 100 microg/kg; N-methylhomoepiboxidine 100 microg/kg; the methyloxadiazole (6) 100 microg/kg. The time course at such ip doses was significantly longer for homoepiboxidine 3 with marked analgesia still manifest at 30 min post-injection. Epiboxidine and the homoepiboxidines were less toxic than epibatidine.     

Reaction trajectory of pyrophosphoryl transfer catalyzed by 6-hydroxymethyl-7,8-dihydropterin pyrophosphokinase

6-hydroxymethyl-7,8-dihydropterin pyrophosphokinase (HPPK) catalyzes the Mg(2+)-dependent pyrophosphoryl transfer from ATP to 6-hydroxymethyl-7,8-dihydropterin (HP). The reaction follows a bi-bi mechanism with ATP as the first substrate and AMP and HP pyrophosphate (HPPP) as the two products. HPPK is a key enzyme in the folate biosynthetic pathway and is essential for microorganisms but absent from mammals. For the HPPK-catalyzed pyrophosphoryl transfer, a reaction coordinate is constructed on the basis of the thermodynamic and transient kinetic data we reported previously, and the reaction trajectory is mapped out with five three-dimensional structures of the enzyme at various liganded states. The five structures are apo-HPPK (ligand-free enzyme), HPPK.MgATP(analog) (binary complex of HPPK with its first substrate) and HPPK.MgATP(analog).HP (ternary complex of HPPK with both substrates), which we reported previously, and HPPK.AMP.HPPP (ternary complex of HPPK with both product molecules) and HPPK.HPPP (binary complex of HPPK with one product), which we present in this study.     

Crystal structure of a FYVE-type zinc finger domain from the caspase regulator CARP2

The caspase-associated ring proteins (CARP1 and CARP2) are distinguished from other caspase regulators by the presence of a FYVE-type zinc finger domain. FYVE-type domains are divided into two known classes: FYVE domains that specifically bind to phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate in lipid bilayers and FYVE-related domains of undetermined function. Here, we report the crystal structure of the N-terminal region of CARP2 (44-139) including the FYVE-type domain and its associated helical bundle at 1.7 A resolution. The structure reveals a cramped phosphoinositide binding pocket and a blunted membrane insertion loop. These structural features indicate that the domain is not optimized to bind to phosphoinositides or insert into lipid bilayers. The CARP2 FYVE-like domain thus defines a third subfamily of FYVE-type domains that are functionally and structurally distinct. Structural analyses provide insights into the possible function of this unique subfamily of FYVE-type domains.     

Regulation of alternative splicing of Bcl-x by IL-6, GM-CSF and TPA

The splicing of many alternative exons in the precursor messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) is regulated by extracellular factors but the underlying molecular bases remain unclear. Here we report the differential regulation of Bcl-x pre-mRNA splicing by extracellular factors and their distinct requirements for pre-mRNA elements. In K562 leukemia cells, treatment with interleukin-6 (IL-6) or granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) reduced the proportion of the Bcl-xL variant mRNA while treatment with 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate (TPA) had no effect. In U251 glioma cells, however, TPA efficiently increased the Bcl-xL level. These regulations were also seen for a transfected splicing reporter mini-gene. Further analyses of deletion mutants indicate that nucleotides 1-176 of the downstream intron are required for the IL-6 effect, whereas additional nucleotides 177-284 are essential for the GM-CSF effect. As for the TPA effect, only nucleotides 1-76 are required in the downstream intron. Thus, IL-6, GM-CSF and TPA differentially regulate Bcl-x splicing and require specific intronic pre-mRNA sequences for their respective effects.