IL-8 expression in malignant melanoma: implications in growth and metastasis

This review article has described briefly studies supporting the concept that IL-8 expression and its regulation by inflammatory cytokines like IL-1 may play an important role in controlling the phenotypes associated with melanoma progression and metastasis. It is clear from the experiments presented here that IL-8 is an important autocrine multifunctional cytokine that modulates melanoma/cell proliferation, migration by induction of extracellular matrix degradation enzymes and induces neovascularization, all of which are critical for melanoma growth and metastasis. In addition, their expression in melanoma tumor specimens suggests an association between IL-8 expression and tumor aggressiveness. Further, inflammatory cytokines produced by either tumor cells or stromal cells may regulate IL-8 expression, which can control melanoma growth and enhance our current knowledge regarding melanoma progression and metastasis. Understanding these events and their significance will allow us to design novel therapeutic approaches for treatment of melanoma.     

Mechanistic insights into the inhibition of prostate specific antigen by beta-lactam class compounds

Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) is a biomarker used in the diagnosis of prostate cancer and to monitor therapeutic response. However, its precise role in prostate carcinogenesis and metastasis remains largely unknown. A number of studies arguing in the favor of an active role of PSA in prostate cancer development and progression have implicated this serine protease in the release and activation of growth factors such as insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) through cleavage of insulin like growth factor binding protein 3 and Transforming Growth Factor beta (TGF-beta) through cleavage of Latent TGF-beta. In contrast, other studies suggest that PSA activity might hinder tumor development and progression. In light of these contradictory findings, efficient inhibitors of PSA are needed for exploring its biological role in tumor development and metastasis. Towards the goal of developing potent inhibitors of PSA, we have explored the molecular mechanism of a series of beta-lactam based compounds on binding to PSA using activity assays, matrix assisted laser desorption ionization with a time-of-flight mass spectrometry, and GOLD docking methodology. The mass spectrometry experiments and the activity assays confirmed the time-dependent and covalent nature of beta-lactam binding. To gain insights on the reaction intermediates at the molecular level, we docked beta-lactam inhibitors to a homology modeled PSA using the GOLD docking program in noncovalent and covalent binding modes. The docking studies elucidated the molecular details of the early noncovalent Michaelis complex, the acyl-enzyme covalent complex, and the nature of conformational reorganization required for the long term stability of the covalent complex. Additionally, the molecular basis for the effect of stereochemistry of the lactam ring on the inhibitory potency was elucidated through docking of beta-lactam enantiomers. As a validation of our docking methodology, two novel enantiomers were synthesized and evaluated for their inhibitory potency using fluorogenic substrate based activity assays. Additionally, cis enantiomers of eight beta-lactam compounds reported in a previous study were docked and their GOLD scores and binding modes were analyzed in order to assess the general applicability of our docking results. The close agreement of our docking results with the experimental data validates the mechanistic insights revealed through the docking studies and paves the way for the design and development of potent and specific inhibitors of PSA.     

Phytotoxic effects of β-pinene on early growth and associated biochemical changes in rice

β-Pinene, an oxygenated monoterpene, is one of the major monoterpenes emitted into the atmosphere from forest areas and trees. Besides, it is a principal component of essential oils of a number of aromatic plants, which are involved in a variety of ecological interactions, including allelopathy, in the natural environment. However, studies pertaining to phytotoxicity and biochemical effect(s) of β-pinene are largely lacking. We investigated the effect of β-pinene (0.02, 0.04, 0.08, 0.20, 0.40 and 0.80 mg/ml) in a dose- and time-dependent manner on early seedling growth, dry weight accumulation, photosynthetic pigments and changes in macromolecule (protein and carbohydrate) content and activities of enzymes—proteases, α- and β-amylases, polyphenol oxidases and peroxidases- in rice (Oryza sativa) after 3rd, 5th and 7th day of exposure. β-pinene (≥0.04 mg/ml) significantly reduced the root (by 13–87%) and coleoptile (by 5–80%) length of rice. Exposure to β-pinene reduced total chlorophyll content in rice coleoptiles suggesting a negative impact on photosynthesis. The content of macromolecules (proteins and carbohydrates) enhanced significantly in response to β-pinene, whereas the activities of hydrolyzing enzymes—proteases, α-amylases, and β-amylases—declined (by 30–85, 26–84, 27–74%, respectively) in β-pinene-exposed seedlings. In contrast, the activities of peroxidases (POX) and polyphenol oxidases (PPO) enhanced significantly (by 16–152 and 53–290%, respectively) in rice roots in response to β-pinene in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Increased activities of POX and PPO indicate their involvement in providing protection and/or conferring resistance against β-pinene-induced stress. The study concludes that β-pinene inhibits the early growth of rice by altering the plant biochemical status and enhancing activities of POXs and PPOs involved in general plant defense.     

Anti-hemolytic and Peroxyl Radical Scavenging Activity of Organoselenium Compounds: An In Vitro Study

Selenium-containing amino acids, selenocystine (CysSeSeCys), methylselenocysteine (MeSeCys), and selenomethionine (SeMet) have been examined for anti-hemolytic and peroxyl radical scavenging ability. Effect of these compounds on membrane lipid peroxidation, release of hemoglobin, and loss of intracellular K⁺ ion as a consequence of peroxyl radicals-induced oxidation of human red blood cells were used to evaluate their anti-hemolytic ability. The peroxyl radicals were generated from thermal degradation of 2,2′-azobis(2-methylpropionamidine) dihydrochloride. Significant delay (t _eff) was observed in oxidative damage in the presence of the selenium compounds. From the IC₅₀ values for the inhibition of hemolysis, lipid peroxidation, and K⁺ ion leakage, the relative anti-hemolytic ability of the compounds were found to be in the order of CysSeSeCys > MeSeCys > SeMet. The anti-hemolytic abilities of the compounds, when compared with sodium selenite (Na₂SeO₃) under identical experimental conditions, were found to be better than Na₂SeO₃. Relative rate constants estimated for the reaction of MeSeCys and SeMet with peroxyl radicals by competition kinetics using ABTS²⁻ as a reference confirmed that all the compounds are efficient peroxyl radical scavengers. Comparison of the GPx-like activity of these compounds, by NADPH–GSH reductase coupled assay, indicated that CysSeSeCys exhibits the highest activity. Based on these results, it is concluded that among the compounds examined, CysSeSeCys, possessing the ability to reduce peroxyl radicals and hydroperoxides showed efficient anti-hemolytic activity.     

Psychosine-induced alterations in peroxisomes of twitcher mouse liver

Krabbe disease is a neuroinflammatory disorder in which galactosylsphingosine (psychosine) accumulates in nervous tissue. To gain insight into whether the psychosine-induced effects in nervous tissue extend to peripheral organs, we investigated the expression of cytokines and their effects on peroxisomal structure/functions in twitcher mouse liver (animal model of Krabbe disease). Immunofluorescence analysis demonstrated TNF-α and IL-6 expression, which was confirmed by mRNAs quantitation. Despite the presence of TNF-α, lipidomic analysis did not indicate a significant decrease in sphingomyelin or an increase in ceramide fractions. Ultrastructural analysis of catalase-dependent staining of liver sections showed reduced reactivity without significant changes in peroxisomal contents. This observation was confirmed by assaying catalase activity and quantitation of its mRNA, both of which were found significantly decreased in twitcher mouse liver. Western blot analysis demonstrated a generalized reduction of peroxisomal matrix and membrane proteins. These observations indicate that twitcher mouse pathobiology extends to the liver, where psychosine-induced TNF-α and IL-6 compromise peroxisomal structure and functions.     

Matrix-Assisted Refolding,Purification and Activity Assessment Using a ‘Form Invariant’ Assay for Matrix Metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2)

Matrix metalloproteinases expression is used as biomarker for various cancers and associated malignancies. Since these proteinases can cleave many intracellular proteins, overexpression tends to be toxic; hence, a challenge to purify them. To overcome these limitations, we designed a protocol where full length pro-MMP2 enzyme was overexpressed in E. coli as inclusion bodies and purified using 6xHis affinity chromatography under denaturing conditions. In one step, the enzyme was purified and refolded directly on the affinity matrix under redox conditions to obtain a bioactive protein. The pro-MMP2 protein was characterized by mass spectrometry, CD spectroscopy, zymography and activity analysis using a simple in-house developed ‘form invariant’ assay, which reports the total MMP2 activity independent of its various forms. The methodology yielded higher yields of bioactive protein compared to other strategies reported till date, and we anticipate that using the protocol, other toxic proteins can also be overexpressed and purified from E. coli and subsequently refolded into active form using a one step renaturation protocol.     

Purification and characterization of a mucin-binding mycelial lectin from <Emphasis Type=Italic>Aspergillus nidulans</Emphasis> with potent mitogenic activity

Mucin-specific lectin from mycelium of Aspergillus nidulans was purified using anion exchange and gel filtration chromatographic techniques with an overall recovery of 32% and 21.97-fold purification. The purified lectin migrated as a single band in SDS–PAGE with an apparent molecular mass of 34 kDa. Carbohydrate analysis revealed that it is a glycoprotein with total sugar content of 2.54%. Optimal agglutination was observed when serially diluted lectin was incubated with human type O erythrocyte suspension at pH 7.0–8.0 and temperature 20–30°C. Lectin was found to be completely stable within pH 5.0–8.0 and temperature at or below 40°C. Demetallization by extensive dialysis against EDTA did not alter its haemagglutination activity. Lectin activity was reduced to half after 24 h incubation with urea and thiourea, with no such effect of guanidine HCl. The lectin showed potent mitogenic response towards mouse splenocytes, attaining a maximum at 200 μg/ml as compared to untreated control cells. Mitogenic lectins are invaluable tools to assess the functioning of immune cells. None of the microfungal lectin has yet been investigated for mitogenic activity. This is the first report on mitogenic activity of lectin from Aspergillus sp.     

Conformational control in structure-based drug design

In structure-based drug design, the basic goal is to design molecules that fit complementarily to a given binding pocket. Since such computationally modeled molecules may not adopt the intended bound conformation outside the binding pocket, one challenge is to ensure that the designed ligands adopt similar low energy conformations both inside and outside of the binding pocket. Computational chemistry methods and conformational preferences of small molecules from PDB and Cambridge Structural Database (CSD) can be used to predict the bound structures of the designed molecules. Herein, we review applications of conformational control in structure-based drug design using selected examples from the recent medicinal chemistry literature. The main purpose is to highlight some intriguing conformational features that can be applied to other drug discovery programs.     

Primary photoprocesses of phytochrome. Picosecond fluorescence kinetics of oat and pea phytochromes

The primary photoprocesses of etiolated oat and pea phytochromes (Pr forms) are diffusion-modulated by the microscopic viscosity within the chromophore pocket. The chromophore pocket is preferentially accessible to glycerol but not to Ficoll. Glycerol preferentially retarded the rate (rate constant ca. 1-2 X 10(10) s-1) of the initial reaction from the Qy excited state of phytochrome, whereas it increased the long fluorescence lifetime (nanosecond) component that can be attributed to either an emitting intermediate or to modified/conformationally heterogeneous phytochrome populations. The picosecond time-resolved fluorescence spectra of different phytochrome preparations (i.e., full-length vs 6/10-kDa NH2-terminus truncated forms of phytochromes from monocot and dicot plants) revealed no significant differences. The spectra in the picosecond time scale showed no spectral shifts, but at longer time scales of up to approximately 1.90 ns, significant blue spectral shifts were observed. The shifts were more in the truncated than in the full-length pea phytochrome. Comparison of the fluorescence decay data and the picosecond time-resolved fluorescence spectra suggests differences in conformational flexibility/heterogeneity among the preparations of the monocot vs dicot phytochromes and the full-length native vs the amino terminus truncated phytochromes.