Achieving CNS axon regeneration by manipulating convergent neuro-immune signaling

After central nervous system (CNS) trauma, axons have a low capacity for regeneration. Regeneration failure is associated with a muted regenerative response of the neuron itself, combined with a growth-inhibitory and cytotoxic post-injury environment. After spinal cord injury (SCI), resident and infiltrating immune cells (especially microglia/macrophages) contribute significantly to the growth-refractory milieu near the lesion. By targeting both the regenerative potential of the axon and the cytotoxic phenotype of microglia/macrophages, we may be able to improve CNS repair after SCI. In this review, we discuss molecules shown to impact CNS repair by affecting both immune cells and neurons. Specifically, we provide examples of pattern recognition receptors, integrins, cytokines/chemokines, nuclear receptors and galectins that could improve CNS repair. In many cases, signaling by these molecules is complex and may have contradictory effects on recovery depending on the cell types involved or the model studied. Despite this caveat, deciphering convergent signaling pathways on immune cells (which affect axon growth indirectly) and neurons (direct effects on axon growth) could improve repair and recovery after SCI. Future studies must continue to consider how regenerative therapies targeting neurons impact other cells in the pathological CNS. By identifying molecules that simultaneously improve axon regenerative capacity and drive the protective, growth-promoting phenotype of immune cells, we may discover SCI therapies that act synergistically to improve CNS repair and functional recovery.     

Categorization of metabolome in bacterial systems

Analyses of biological databases such as those of genome, proteome, metabolome etc., have given insights in organization of biological systems. However, current efforts do not utilize the complete potential of available metabolome data. In this study, metabolome of bacterial systems with reliable annotations are analyzed and a simple method is developed to categorize pathways hierarchically, using rational approach. Ninety-four bacterial systems having for each ≥ 250 annotated metabolic pathways were used to identify a set of common pathways. 42 pathways were present in all bacteria which are termed as Core/Stage I pathways. This set of pathways was used along with interacting compounds to categorize pathways in the metabolome hierarchically. In each metabolome non-interacting pathways were identified including at each stage. The case study of Escherichia coli O157, having 433 annotated pathways, shows that 378 pathways interact directly or indirectly with 41 core pathways while 14 pathways are noninteracting. These 378 pathways are distributed in Stage II (289), Stage III (75), Stage IV (13) and Stage V (1) category. The approach discussed here allows understanding of the complexity of metabolic networks. It has pointed out that core pathways could be most ancient pathways and compounds that interact with maximum pathways may be compounds with high biosynthetic potential, which can be easily identified. Further, it was shown that interactions of pathways at various stages could be one to one, one to many, many to one or many to many mappings through interacting compounds. The granularity of the method discussed being high; the impact of perturbation in a pathway on the metabolome and particularly sub networks can be studied precisely. The categorizations of metabolic pathways help in identifying choke point enzymes that are useful to identify probable drug targets. The Metabolic categorizations for 94 bacteria are available at http://115.111.37.202/mpe/.     

Complete genome sequence of the sulfur compounds oxidizing chemolithoautotroph Sulfuricurvum kujiense type strain (YK-1(T))

Sulfuricurvum kujiense Kodama and Watanabe 2004 is the type species of the monotypic genus Sulfuricurvum, which belongs to the family Helicobacteraceae in the class Epsilonproteobacteria. The species is of interest because it is frequently found in crude oil and oil sands where it utilizes various reduced sulfur compounds such as elemental sulfur, sulfide and thiosulfate as electron donors. Members of the species do not utilize sugars, organic acids or hydrocarbons as carbon and energy sources. This genome sequence represents the type strain of the only species in the genus Sulfuricurvum. The genome, which consists of a circular chromosome of 2,574,824 bp length and four plasmids of 118,585 bp, 71,513 bp, 51,014 bp, and 3,421 bp length, respectively, harboring a total of 2,879 protein-coding and 61 RNA genes and is a part of the Genomic Encyclopedia of Bacteria and Archaea project.     

Genome sequence of the moderately thermophilic, amino-acid-degrading and sulfur-reducing bacterium Thermovirga lienii type strain (Cas60314(T))

Thermovirga lienii Dahle and Birkeland 2006 is a member of the genus Thermovirga in the genomically moderately well characterized phylum 'Synergistetes'. Members of this relatively recently proposed phylum 'Synergistetes' are of interest because of their isolated phylogenetic position and their diverse habitats, e.g. from humans to oil wells. The genome of T. lienii Cas60314(T) is the fifth genome sequence (third completed) from this phylum to be published. Here we describe the features of this organism, together with the complete genome sequence and annotation. The 1,999,646 bp long genome (including one plasmid) with its 1,914 protein-coding and 59 RNA genes is a part of the Genomic Encyclopedia of Bacteria and Archaea project.     

Lactulose: production, purification and potential applications

Lactulose a “bifidus factor” is composed of galactose and fructose, which can be produced by the isomerization of lactose. It is a prebiotic carbohydrate which stimulates the growth of health-promoting bacteria in the gastrointestinal tract, such as bifidobacteria and lactobacilli and at the same time inhibits growth of pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella. It can also be used for the treatment of constipation, hepatic encephalopathy, tumour prevention, and to maintain blood glucose and insulin level. This review provides comprehensive information on the different techniques used for the production of lactulose, purification and analysis. Besides this mechanism of action and its potential applications in food and pharmaceutical industries have also been discussed.     

At times, myomectomy is mandatory to effect delivery

Background

Excision of a leiomyoma has never been a choice during caesarean section.

Method

Myomectomy of a massive fibroid was necessitated prior to delivering the baby.

Results

Delivery of a healthy was effected by Classical caesarean section.

Conclusion

Leiomyoma in pregnancy is not an unknown entity and is a cause of concern for being a source of excruciating pain, at times, during the ongoing gestation. Although performed rarely, it is sometimes necessary to remove a large myoma to effect delivery of the baby during Cesarean section as is depicted in the case being presented hereunder.     

Complete genome sequence of Syntrophobotulus glycolicus type strain (FlGlyR)

Syntrophobotulus glycolicus Friedrich et al. 1996 is currently the only member of the genus Syntrophobotulus within the family Peptococcaceae. The species is of interest because of its isolated phylogenetic location in the genome-sequenced fraction of tree of life. When grown in pure culture with glyoxylate as carbon source the organism utilizes glyoxylate through fermentative oxidation, whereas, when grown in syntrophic co-culture with homoacetogenic or methanogenic bacteria, it is able to oxidize glycolate to carbon dioxide and hydrogen. No other organic or inorganic carbon source is utilized by S. glycolicus. The subdivision of the family Peptococcaceae into genera does not reflect the natural relationships, particularly regarding the genera most closely related to Syntrophobotulus. Both Desulfotomaculum and Pelotomaculum are paraphyletic assemblages, and the taxonomic classification is in significant conflict with the 16S rRNA data. S. glycolicus is already the ninth member of the family Peptococcaceae with a completely sequenced and publicly available genome. The 3,406,739 bp long genome with its 3,370 protein-coding and 69 RNA genes is a part of the Genomic Encyclopedia of Bacteria and Archaea project.     

Complete genome sequence of Paludibacter propionicigenes type strain (WB4)

Paludibacter propionicigenes Ueki et al. 2006 is the type species of the genus Paludibacter, which belongs to the family Porphyromonadaceae. The species is of interest because of the position it occupies in the tree of life where it can be found in close proximity to members of the genus Dysgonomonas. This is the first completed genome sequence of a member of the genus Paludibacter and the third sequence from the family Porphyromonadaceae. The 3,685,504 bp long genome with its 3,054 protein-coding and 64 RNA genes consists of one circular chromosome and is a part of the Genomic Encyclopedia of Bacteria and Archaea project.     

Complete genome sequence of Truepera radiovictrix type strain (RQ-24)

Truepera radiovictrix Albuquerque et al. 2005 is the type species of the genus Truepera within the phylum "Deinococcus/Thermus". T. radiovictrix is of special interest not only because of its isolated phylogenetic location in the order Deinococcales, but also because of its ability to grow under multiple extreme conditions in alkaline, moderately saline, and high temperature habitats. Of particular interest is the fact that, T. radiovictrix is also remarkably resistant to ionizing radiation, a feature it shares with members of the genus Deinococcus. This is the first completed genome sequence of a member of the family Trueperaceae and the fourth type strain genome sequence from a member of the order Deinococcales. The 3,260,398 bp long genome with its 2,994 protein-coding and 52 RNA genes consists of one circular chromosome and is a part of the Genomic Encyclopedia of Bacteria and Archaea project.     

Complete genome sequence of Bacteroides salanitronis type strain (BL78)

Bacteroides salanitronis Lan et al. 2006 is a species of the genus Bacteroides, which belongs to the family Bacteroidaceae. The species is of interest because it was isolated from the gut of a chicken and the growing awareness that the anaerobic microflora of the cecum is of benefit for the host and may impact poultry farming. The 4,308,663 bp long genome consists of a 4.24 Mbp chromosome and three plasmids (6 kbp, 19 kbp, 40 kbp) containing 3,737 protein-coding and 101 RNA genes and is a part of the Genomic Encyclopedia of Bacteria and Archaea project.