Protecting biodiversity when money matters: maximizing return on investment

Background

Conventional wisdom identifies biodiversity hotspots as priorities for conservation investment because they capture dense concentrations of species. However, density of species does not necessarily imply conservation ‘efficiency’. Here we explicitly consider conservation efficiency in terms of species protected per dollar invested.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We apply a dynamic return on investment approach to a global biome and compare it with three alternate priority setting approaches and a random allocation of funding. After twenty years of acquiring habitat, the return on investment approach protects between 32% and 69% more species compared to the other priority setting approaches. To correct for potential inefficiencies of protecting the same species multiple times we account for the complementarity of species, protecting up to three times more distinct vertebrate species than alternate approaches.

Conclusions/Significance

Incorporating costs in a return on investment framework expands priorities to include areas not traditionally highlighted as priorities based on conventional irreplaceability and vulnerability approaches.     

Optimal Dynamic Allocation of Conservation Funding Among Priority Regions

The optimal allocation of conservation resources between biodiverse conservation regions has generally been calculated using stochastic dynamic programming, or using myopic heuristics. These solutions are hard to interpret and may not be optimal. To overcome these two limitations, this paper approaches the optimal conservation resource allocation problem using optimal control theory. A solution using Pontryagin’s maximum principle provides novel insight into the general properties of efficient conservation resource allocation strategies, and allows more extensive testing of the performance of myopic heuristics. We confirmed that a proposed heuristic (minimize short-term loss) yields near-optimal results in complex allocation situations, and found that a qualitative allocation feature observed in previous analyses (bang-bang allocation) is a general property of the optimal allocation strategy.     

Management of Calving in Norwegian Cubicle-Housed Dairy Herds

Sixty of the 65 dairy farms with cubicle houses in the Norwegian county of Oppland were included in a field study of the management of calving in 1990. The farmers recorded the location of the cow when giving birth, farmer presence and whether assistance was given during calving, occurrence of suckling, and time after birth when cow and calf were separated. Such data were recorded for a total of 1125 calvings. About 10% occurred on pasture, while 78% of the remaining calvings took place in the cubicle-equipped section. Thirteen percent calved in a calving pen, the remaining cows being tethered at the time of calving. Thirty-two percent of the calvings took place in houses lacking a calving pen altogether. Farmers were present during 41% of the calvings. Suckling most frequently occurred after pasture calvings, and was least frequent after calvings within the cubicle-equipped section of the cowhouse. Injuries to the calf caused by trampling or contact with fittings etc. were rare, and no more common in association with calving in the cubicle-equipped section than with calving taking place with the cow isolated from the rest of the herd. All calves were removed from their dams within 24 h after birth.     

Biodiversity gains from efficient use of private sponsorship for flagship species conservation

To address the global extinction crisis, both efficient use of existing conservation funding and new sources of funding are vital. Private sponsorship of charismatic ‘flagship’ species conservation represents an important source of new funding, but has been criticized as being inefficient. However, the ancillary benefits of privately sponsored flagship species conservation via actions benefiting other species have not been quantified, nor have the benefits of incorporating such sponsorship into objective prioritization protocols. Here, we use a comprehensive dataset of conservation actions for the 700 most threatened species in New Zealand to examine the potential biodiversity gains from national private flagship species sponsorship programmes. We find that private funding for flagship species can clearly result in additional species and phylogenetic diversity conserved, via conservation actions shared with other species. When private flagship species funding is incorporated into a prioritization protocol to preferentially sponsor shared actions, expected gains can be more than doubled. However, these gains are consistently smaller than expected gains in a hypothetical scenario where private funding could be optimally allocated among all threatened species. We recommend integrating private sponsorship of flagship species into objective prioritization protocols to sponsor efficient actions that maximize biodiversity gains, or wherever possible, encouraging private donations for broader biodiversity goals.     

Operationalizing resilience for adaptive coral reef management under global environmental change

Cumulative pressures from global climate and ocean change combined with multiple regional and local‐scale stressors pose fundamental challenges to coral reef managers worldwide. Understanding how cumulative stressors affect coral reef vulnerability is critical for successful reef conservation now and in the future. In this review, we present the case that strategically managing for increased ecological resilience (capacity for stress resistance and recovery) can reduce coral reef vulnerability (risk of net decline) up to a point. Specifically, we propose an operational framework for identifying effective management levers to enhance resilience and support management decisions that reduce reef vulnerability. Building on a system understanding of biological and ecological processes that drive resilience of coral reefs in different environmental and socio‐economic settings, we present an Adaptive Resilience‐Based management (ARBM) framework and suggest a set of guidelines for how and where resilience can be enhanced via management interventions. We argue that press‐type stressors (pollution, sedimentation, overfishing, ocean warming and acidification) are key threats to coral reef resilience by affecting processes underpinning resistance and recovery, while pulse‐type (acute) stressors (e.g. storms, bleaching events, crown‐of‐thorns starfish outbreaks) increase the demand for resilience. We apply the framework to a set of example problems for Caribbean and Indo‐Pacific reefs. A combined strategy of active risk reduction and resilience support is needed, informed by key management objectives, knowledge of reef ecosystem processes and consideration of environmental and social drivers. As climate change and ocean acidification erode the resilience and increase the vulnerability of coral reefs globally, successful adaptive management of coral reefs will become increasingly difficult. Given limited resources, on‐the‐ground solutions are likely to focus increasingly on actions that support resilience at finer spatial scales, and that are tightly linked to ecosystem goods and services.     

Chronic exposure of diesel exhaust particles induces alveolar enlargement in mice

Background

Diesel exhaust particles (DEPs) are deposited into the respiratory tract and are thought to be a risk factor for the development of diseases of the respiratory system. In healthy individuals, the timing and mechanisms of respiratory tract injuries caused by chronic exposure to air pollution remain to be clarified.

Methods

We evaluated the effects of chronic exposure to DEP at doses below those found in a typical bus corridor in Sao Paulo (150 μg/m³). Male BALB/c mice were divided into mice receiving a nasal instillation: saline (saline; n = 30) and 30 μg/10 μL of DEP (DEP; n = 30). Nasal instillations were performed five days a week, over a period of 90 days. Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) was performed, and the concentrations of interleukin (IL)-4, IL-10, IL-13 and interferon-gamma (INF-γ) were determined by ELISA-immunoassay. Assessment of respiratory mechanics was performed. The gene expression of Muc5ac in lung was evaluated by RT-PCR. The presence of IL-13, MAC2+ macrophages, CD3+, CD4+, CD8+ T cells and CD20+ B cells in tissues was analysed by immunohistochemistry. Bronchial thickness and the collagen/elastic fibers density were evaluated by morphometry. We measured the mean linear intercept (Lm), a measure of alveolar distension, and the mean airspace diameter (D0) and statistical distribution (D2).

Results

DEP decreased IFN-γ levels in BAL (p = 0.03), but did not significantly alter IL-4, IL-10 and IL-13 levels. MAC2+ macrophage, CD4+ T cell and CD20+ B cell numbers were not altered; however, numbers of CD3+ T cells (p ≤ 0.001) and CD8+ T cells (p ≤ 0.001) increased in the parenchyma. Although IL-13 (p = 0.008) expression decreased in the bronchiolar epithelium, Muc5ac gene expression was not altered in the lung of DEP-exposed animals. Although respiratory mechanics, elastic and collagen density were not modified, the mean linear intercept (Lm) was increased in the DEP-exposed animals (p ≤ 0.001), and the index D2 was statistically different (p = 0.038) from the control animals.

Conclusion

Our data suggest that nasal instillation of low doses of DEP over a period of 90 days results in alveolar enlargement in the pulmonary parenchyma of healthy mice.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12931-015-0172-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Metrics for evaluating representation target achievement in protected area networks

Global conservation targets (e.g. Aichi Target 11) have helped drive a dramatic expansion of the global protected area (PA) network. Credible metrics have an important role to play in evaluating and expanding PAs to achieve conservation outcomes and objectives. For metrics to be useful and adopted, they need to be transparent, easy to understand, and easy to implement. We present two complementary metrics, “mean protection gap” and “mean target achievement”, for evaluating representation target achievement in PA networks along with the R package “ConsTarget” that calculates and plots both metrics. We use Australia's proposed Commonwealth Marine Reserve network as a case study to demonstrate the application of these metrics. We recommend the metrics be used to evaluate the progress towards building representative PA networks in line with Aichi target 11's goals.     

The [FeFe] hydrogenase of Nyctotherus ovalis has a chimeric origin

Background

The hydrogenosomes of the anaerobic ciliate Nyctotherus ovalis show how mitochondria can evolve into hydrogenosomes because they possess a mitochondrial genome and parts of an electron-transport chain on the one hand, and a hydrogenase on the other hand. The hydrogenase permits direct reoxidation of NADH because it consists of a [FeFe] hydrogenase module that is fused to two modules, which are homologous to the 24 kDa and the 51 kDa subunits of a mitochondrial complex I.

Results

The [FeFe] hydrogenase belongs to a clade of hydrogenases that are different from well-known eukaryotic hydrogenases. The 24 kDa and the 51 kDa modules are most closely related to homologous modules that function in bacterial [NiFe] hydrogenases. Paralogous, mitochondrial 24 kDa and 51 kDa modules function in the mitochondrial complex I in N. ovalis. The different hydrogenase modules have been fused to form a polyprotein that is targeted into the hydrogenosome.

Conclusion

The hydrogenase and their associated modules have most likely been acquired by independent lateral gene transfer from different sources. This scenario for a concerted lateral gene transfer is in agreement with the evolution of the hydrogenosome from a genuine ciliate mitochondrion by evolutionary tinkering.     

The Supramolecular Architecture in Chloroplast Thylakoid Membranes of Warigal Wheat

Thylakoid membranes of chloroplast from first leaf and flag leaf of wheat Warigal were examined by freeze-fracture and rotary shadowing etectron microscopy. The shape, size, density and size distribution of freeze-fracture partieles of their four faces were measured and plotted as three-dimensional histograms by a Hewlett-packard 9874 A digitizer with a HP 9845 B Computer and HP 9872 C plotter. When comparisons were made among different fracture faces and between the corresponding faces of the first leaf and the flag leaf, we found that the supramolecular architecture on the four fracture faces of the flag leaf differs from that on the corresponding faces of the chloroplast thytakoid membranes of the first leaf. The most significant difference was that the EFs particles contain the photosystem Ⅱ reaction centres associated with LHCP and the PFs particles were mostly light-harvesting complex. There was a 15% increase in EFs particle density, a 22% increase in PFs particle density and a 28% increase in EFu particle density. The large PFu particles contained the photosystem Ⅰ reaction centre and the flag lcaves contained 5% more than the first leaves. In addition, the stacking of thylakoid membranes in the flag leaf was 5% more than those in the first leaf.Thus, it provides theoretical basis for the fact that the flag leaf has higher photosynthetic rate.     

Conservation Strategies for Orangutans: Reintroduction versus Habitat Preservation and the Benefits of Sustainably Logged Forest

The Sumatran orangutan is currently listed by the IUCN as critically endangered and the Bornean species as endangered. Unless effective conservation measures are enacted quickly, most orangutan populations without adequate protection face a dire future. Two main strategies are being pursued to conserve orangutans: (i) rehabilitation and reintroduction of ex-captive or displaced individuals; and (ii) protection of their forest habitat to abate threats like deforestation and hunting. These strategies are often mirrored in similar programs to save other valued and endangered mega-fauna. Through GIS analysis, collating data from across the literature, and combining this information within a modelling and decision analysis framework, we analysed which strategy or combination of strategies is the most cost-effective at maintaining wild orangutan populations, and under what conditions. We discovered that neither strategy was optimal under all circumstances but was dependent on the relative cost per orangutan, the timescale of management concern, and the rate of deforestation. Reintroduction, which costs twelve times as much per animal as compared to protection of forest, was only a cost-effective strategy at very short timescales. For time scales longer than 10–20 years, forest protection is the more cost-efficient strategy for maintaining wild orangutan populations. Our analyses showed that a third, rarely utilised strategy is intermediate: introducing sustainable logging practices and protection from hunting in timber production forest. Maximum long-term cost-efficiency is achieved by working in conservation forest. However, habitat protection involves addressing complex conservation issues and conflicting needs at the landscape level. We find a potential resolution in that well-managed production forests could achieve intermediate conservation outcomes. This has broad implications for sustaining biodiversity more generally within an economically productive landscape. Insights from this analysis should provide a better framework to prioritize financial investments, and facilitate improved integration between the organizations that implement these strategies.