Vibration attraction response is a plastic trait in blind Mexican tetra (Astyanax mexicanus), variable within subpopulations inhabiting the same cave

Animals evolve their sensory systems and foraging behaviours to adapt and colonize new and challenging habitats such as the dark cave environment. Vibration attraction behaviour (VAB) gives fish the ability to locate the source of a water disturbance in the darkness. VAB evolved in the blind Mexican cave tetra, Astyanax mexicanus. VAB is triggered in cavefish by vibration stimuli peaking at 35 Hz, which is within the main spectrum of water fluctuations produced by many prey crustaceans and insects. VAB has a genetic component and is correlated to an increased number of head mechanosensory neuromasts in the eye orbital region when compared to surface fish. Previous competitive prey capture assays have supported the advantage of VAB for foraging in the dark. Despite its putative adaptive function, VAB has been described as absent in some Astyanax cave populations (Tinaja and Molino) but present in others (Pachón, Piedras, Toro and Sabinos). Here we have tested the occurrence of VAB in the field and in multiple cave populations using a vibrating device in natural pools. Our results confirmed the presence of VAB in caves such as Pachón, Toro and Sabinos but showed that VAB is also present in the Tinaja and Molino cave populations, previously reported as VAB-negative in laboratory experiments. Thus, VAB is available throughout the range of hypogean A. mexicanus. However, and most notably, within a given cave the levels of VAB were highly variable among different pools. Fish at one pool may express no VAB, while fish at another nearby pool of the same cave may actively show VAB. While a variety of environmental conditions may foster this diversity, we found that individuals inhabiting pools with a high abundance of organic matter have reduced expression of VAB. In contrast, in pools with little organic debris where fish probably depend more on hunting than on scavenging, VAB is enhanced. Our results suggest that expression of VAB is a plastic trait whose variability can depend on local conditions. Such plasticity may be required within and among caves where high environmental variability between pools results in a diverse availability of food.     

Is There Division of Labor in Cooperative Pseudoscorpions? An Analysis of the Behavioral Repertoire of a Tropical Species

Division of labor is a strategy that maximizes the foraging and reproductive success of eusocial insects. Although some arachnids exhibit colony structure and social organization similar to that of hymenopterans, temporal polyethism has only been demonstrated in few species. The social organization of cooperative pseudoscorpions Paratemnoides nidificator is similar to that of social spiders, but it involves a clear division of labor. Work allocation was experimentally investigated in colonies composed of only one developmental stage (young or adults) or by one sex (males or females), through laboratory manipulation. During 44 h of observation, more than 14 000 behavioral repetitions were quantified, distributed in 95 different types of behavioral acts, and grouped in 10 behavioral categories. The results showed that reproductive colonies of P. nidificator are maintained by gender‐ and age‐based activities. Males and non‐reproductive females performed the external cleaning of the colony and prey capture. Reproductive females take care of the juveniles and build reproductive silk chambers. Nymphs build most of the molt chambers and perform internal cleaning. In the absence of nymphs, male colonies survived 1–2 mo, while female colonies survived 3–4 mo. In nymph colonies, work is readjusted so that all maintenance tasks are executed. This is the first study clearly demonstrating division of tasks in arachnids. It suggests that specialization is an adaptative and evolutionarily old trait in this species. Unlike cooperative spiders, P. nidificator possesses physiological (e.g. reproduction, ecdysis, lifespan) and behavioral (e.g. behavioral synchrony or self‐organization) characteristics that allow task specialization.     

Length–weight relationships of 26 fish species from the middle section of the Negro River (Tacuarembó‐Durazno,Uruguay)

This study provides data on the length–weight relationship (LWR) for 26 species of neotropical fishes. Specimens were collected between 2008 and 2009 from a dam‐enclosed section of the middle Negro River (Uruguay). This study represents the first reference on length–weight relationships for 17 species, and also provides new maximum sizes for eight species.     

Prevalence of potentially pathogenic culturable bacteria on eggshells and in cloacae of female Pied Flycatchers in a temperate habitat in central Spain

ABSTRACT Bacteria grow on avian eggshells and thus can potentially cause diseases in developing embryos. Little is known about culturable bacteria colonizing avian eggshells in free‐living birds, with most studies restricted to poultry. Our objective was to examine the culturable bacterial array growing on eggshells during incubation that could negatively affect hatching success of Pied Flycatchers (Ficedula hypoleuca) in a temperate montane habitat in central Spain. Cloacal culturable bacteria of females were also analyzed because bacteria can be vertically transmitted from females to eggs. We used fecal samples as surrogates of cloacal samples due to the small size of sampled birds. We found that eggshells and female cloacae of Pied Flycatchers harbored 24 and 40 bacterial families and species, respectively, but only a few in each clutch and each cloaca. Rod‐shaped gram‐negative bacteria and bacteria in the family Pseudomonadaceae were the most common bacteria on eggshells during early and late incubation and in female cloacae. Although based on small sample sizes, we found that females with rod‐shaped gram‐negative bacteria in their cloacae laid eggs that also had these bacteria, providing possible evidence for vertical transmission. We found no evidence for vertical transmission of Pseudomonadaceae, suggesting a possible environmental source for these bacteria. The prevalence of bacterial morphological types and major taxonomical categories on eggshells did not vary from early to late stages of incubation, providing support for the hypothesis that incubation may have bacteriostatic effects on bacterial proliferation on eggshells. Despite being primary egg invaders in poultry, we detected no effects of culturable Pseudomonadaceae or Pseudomonas luteola on hatching success. Our study represents the first to examine the culturable bacteria growing on the eggshells of a wild bird in a temperate habitat and additional studies based on culture‐independent techniques are required to confirm our results.     

Systematics and cladistics of Megalostomis Chevrolat,and the biogeography of Clytrini (Coleoptera: Cryptocephalinae)

We present a cladistic analysis of the subtribe Megalostomina, a Neotropical group of ‘case‐bearer’ leaf beetles. A comparative study of the external and internal adult morphology of Clytrini was undertaken. New characters are described for the subtribe Megalostomina, from the internal sac of aedeagus, which provide a useful phylogenetic signal. More than 180 photographs illustrating the most important characters (74 characters and their respective states) used in the cladistic analysis are provided. The cladistic analysis of 57 terminal taxa and 95 characters was undertaken, under equal weights, and also using implied weights as a means to down‐weight homoplasious characters. We test the monophyly and explore intergeneric relationships of the subtribe Megalostomina, and reconstruct the relationships among the species of Megalostomis Chevrolat. The 42 species recognized can be assigned either to a group mostly containing species of North and Central America, or to a larger one of mostly South American species. Support is low, and the formal naming of groups is deferred pending a revision of all Megalostomina. We confirm the subgenera of Megalostomis of previous classifications are unnatural, and the following changes in the generic classification of the subtribe Megalostomina are proposed: Coleorozena Moldenke syn.n. of Coscinoptera Lacordaire; Coleothorpa Moldenke syn.n. of Coscinoptera Lacordaire; and Euryscopa (Coleoguerina) Moldenke syn.n. of Coscinoptera Lacordaire. Furthermore, six formerly recognized subgenera of Megalostomis are considered junior synonyms of Megalostomis Chevrolat: Megalostomis (Minturnia) Lacordaire syn.n. ; Megalostomis (Heterostomis) Lacordaire syn.n. ; Megalostomis (Scaphigenia) Lacordaire syn.n. ; Megalostomis (Snellingia) Moldenke syn.n. ; Megalostomis (Coleobyersa) Moldenke syn.n. ; and Megalostomis (Pygidiocarina) Moldenke syn.n. Thus, no subgenera are recognized within Megalostomis. Previous hypotheses on Clytrini biogeography were revisited in the light of new biogeographic and phylogenetic knowledge. We hypothesize an origin of Clytrini in tropical/subtropical Gondwana, when South America, Africa, Madagascar and India were connected. Changes in the configuration of the tectonic plates in the Cenozoic allowed the dispersal of Clytrina to the Palaearctic and Nearctic regions, and dispersion of Babiina and Megalostomina through the Nearctic region.