Rebound effects of price differences

Goal, Scope and Background  Traditionally, comparative life cycle assessments (LCA) have not considered rebound effects, for instance in case of significant price differences among the compared products. No justifications have been made for this delimitation in scope. This article shows that price differences and the consequent effects of marginal consumer expenditure may influence the conclusions of comparative LCA significantly. We also show that considerations about rebound effects of price differences can be included in LCAs. Methods  The direct rebound effect of a price difference is marginal consumption. Based on statistical data on private consumption in different income groups (Statistics Denmark 2005a, 2005b), the present article provides an estimate of how an average Danish household will spend an additional 1 DKK for further consumer goods, when the household has gained money from choosing a cheaper product alternative. The approach is to use marginal income changes and the following changes in consumption patterns as an expression for marginal consumption. Secondly, the environmental impact potentials related to this marginal consumption are estimated by the use of environmental impact intensity data from an IO-LCA database (Weidema et al. 2005). Finally, it is discussed whether, and in which ways the conclusions of comparative LCAs can be affected by including the price difference between product alternatives. This is elucidated in a case study of a comparative LCA screening of two different kinds of Danish cheese products (Fricke et al. 2004). Results  Car purchase and driving, use and maintenance of dwelling, clothing purchase and insurance constitutes the largest percentages of the marginal consumption. In a case study of two cheeses, the including the impact potentials related to the price difference results in significant changes in the total impact potentials. Considering the relatively small price difference of the two products, it is likely also to have a significant influence on the results of comparative LCAs more generally. Discussion  The influence of marginal consumption in comparative LCAs is relevant to consider in situations with large differences in the price of the product alternatives being compared, and in situations with minor differences in the impact potentials related to the alternatives. However, different uncertainties are linked to determining the pattern for marginal consumption and the environmental impact potential related to this. These are first of all related to the method used, but also include inaccurate data of consumption in households, aggregation and weighting of income groups, aggregation of product groups, estimation and size of the price difference, and the general applicability of the results. Conclusion  Incorporating marginal consumption in consequential LCAs is possible in practice. In the case study used, including the rebound effects of the price difference has a significant influence on the result of the comparative LCA, as the result for the impact categories acidification and nutrient enrichment changes in favour of the expensive product. Recommendations and Perspectives  It is recommended that the rebound effects of price differences should be included more frequently in LCAs. In order to ensure this, further research in marginal consumption and investment patterns and IO data for different countries or regions is required. Furthermore, this study does not consider the economic distributional consequences of buying an expensive product instead of a cheaper product (e.g. related to how the profit is spent by those who provided the product). It should also be noted, that more expensive products not necessarily result in less consumption, as those who provided the product also will spend the money they have earned from the sale. Ideally, these consequences should also be further investigated. Likewise, the development of databases to include marginal consumption in PC-tools is needed. In general, considerations of marginal consumption would favour expensive product alternatives, depending, however, on the type of consumer. ESS-Submission Editor: Dr. David Hunkeler (david.hunkeler@aquaplustech.ch)     

Immunohistochemical detection of nestin in pediatric brain tumors.

Nestin is an intermediate filament protein (IFP) expressed in undifferentiated cells during CNS development and in CNS tumors. Previous studies have arrived at different conclusions in terms of which types of CNS tumors express nestin. In this report we establish an immunohistochemical protocol using antigen retrieval, which significantly enhances staining with two polyclonal anti-nestin antisera, #130 and #4350. The staining pattern was identical for the two nestin antisera and very similar to that of vimentin, while glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), immunoreactivity was absent from 9.5-week-old forebrain. The current study of 20 primary CNS tumors from pediatric patients included seven ependymomas, seven primitive neuroectodermal tumors (PNETs), five pilocytic astrocytomas, and one glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). All these tumors expressed nestin to various extents, in contrast to five brain metastases tested. Strong nestin immunoreactivity was found in malignant primary CNS tumors, whereas benign pilocytic astrocytomas showed low but consistent nestin expression. In all tumors nestin immunoreactivity was confined to the cytoplasm of tumor cells and was co-expressed with astrocyte markers vimentin, GFAP, and S-100. Vascular endothelial cells of all neoplasms also showed marked immunoreactivity for nestin and vimentin, whereas they were negative for GFAP and S-100. In conclusion, antiserum #4350 detected nestin in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue sections by heat-induced antigen retrieval immunohistochemistry. Nestin was expressed in both highly malignant and low malignant gliomas, indicating the potential use of nestin as a diagnostic tumor marker in surgical pathology.     

Molecular characterization of three Mhc class II B haplotypes in the ring-necked pheasant

We investigated the class II B genes in free-ranging population of the ring-necked pheasant Phasianus colchicus by a combination of restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and DNA sequencing. Special attention was paid to the variation in the second exon, which encodes the peptide-binding ₁-domain. The population was introduced, but it still exhibited major histocompatibility complex polymorphism with at least three segregating class II B haplotypes and consequently six genotypes. We found two class II B genes associated with each haplotype. The class II B genes of birds had until then only been molecularly characterized in the domestic chicken. the pheasant genes were highly variable, although one of the amplified sequences was found in two different haplotypes. Taken together, the most polymorphic positions (residues 37 and 38) were not identical in any of the predicted protein sequences, but all except one of the motifs had already been foud in the domestic chicken. Structurally important features in mammalian class II B genes were generally conserved also in the pheasant sequences, but the loss of a potential salt bridge constituent (Arg₇₂) in several sequences may suggest a slightly different structure of the adjacent parts of the peptide-binding groove. The pheasant genes are most closely related to the so called B-LBII family in the chicken, indicating that this represents a major line of development among avian class II B genes.The nucleotide sequence data reported in this paper have been submitted to the EMBL nucleotide sequence database and have been assigned the accession numbers X75403-X75407. Correspondence to: H. Wittzell, Department of Theoretical Ecology, Ecology Building, Lund University, S-223 62 Lund, Sweden.     

X-Ray Crystal Structure of a Highly Functionalized Thiophene as a New Backbone Amide Linker for Solid-phase Peptide Synthesis. Relationship between Crystal Structure and Reactivity

The development of new linkers (handles) for solid-phase synthesis provides new chemical opportunities for peptide synthesis. To understand the chemical properties of a recently developed backbone amide linker from a structural perspective, the crystal structure of S-((5-formyl-3,4-ethylenedioxy)thiophene-2-yl)-3-thiopropionic acid (T-BAL2) was studied. Specifically, we wished to address whether this highly substituted thiophene retained planarity in the aromatic ring as well as between the aromatic ring and the aldehyde carbonyl. Furthermore, we sought an explanation for the relatively low reactivity in reductive aminations of the thienylaldehyde with amines in solution and on solid phase. Based on the crystal structure of T-BAL2, the thienyl-C (aldehyde) and C–O (aldehyde) bond lengths were applied as measures for the electron-deficiency (electrophilicity) of the aldehyde and compared to similar bond lengths found in previously reported formylated homo- and hetero-aromatic systems, which show significantly higher reactivity towards imine formation. The bond lengths found in the present structure are in accordance with normal C–C single bond and C–O double bond lengths. The high similarity in aldehyde bond lengths in the present system and in the reported systems indicates similar electron distribution in these systems. The lower reactivity of the present system may therefore not be attributed to electronic factors.     

Growth hormone affects behaviour of wild brown trout Salmo trutta in territorial owner–intruder conflicts

The effects of growth hormone (GH) implants on aggression, and ability to win dyadic territorial conflicts were studied in brown trout Salmo trutta parr. Bovine GH or vehicle (C) was given to either the territory owner or the intruder in four treatment combinations: C and C, C and GH, GH and C, GH and GH (owner and intruder). GH‐treated intruders initiated significantly more conflicts compared to control intruders. Furthermore, GH treatment of either the owner or intruder tended to increase aggression of the intruder. This indicates that intruders have more scope for motivational increase, while the motivation of owners is already at a maximum. The GH treatment, however, did not affect the outcome of the conflict. It thus appears that growth enhancement increases intruder aggression without increasing the chance of winning the conflict, which may have implications for the effect of growth‐selected or growth‐enhanced farmed Atlantic salmon Salmo salar on wild populations.     

A new type of loriciferan larva (Shira larva) from the deep sea of Shatsky Rise,Pacific Ocean

Loricifera is a phylum of minute animals that live exclusively in marine sediments. A total of 33 species have been described so far in this phylum; however, several more are already known from preliminary observations. Loriciferans are characterised by a complex life cycle, which involves a succession of several adult and larval stages. Here, we describe a new type of loriciferan larval stage: the Shira larva. The gross morphology of this larva is generally similar to that of the most prominent larval type of Loricifera, the so-called Higgins larva. However, the Shira larva possesses a number of unique features, namely (1) a single pair of anteroventral setae is present in the most anterior region of the abdomen, (2) the bases of the anteroventral setae are very large and swollen, (3) the thorax and abdomen are thinner than the introvert and (4) the abdominal region is divided into five sub-regions. Accordingly, we described the new species, Tenuiloricus shirayamai gen. nov. et sp. nov. (incertae sedis). The new findings are discussed from a comparative perspective with the Higgins larva as well as with the fossil of a putative loriciferan larval stage from the Middle Cambrian.     

Associations between primates and other mammals in a central Amazonian forest landscape

Little information exists on mixed-species groups between primates and other mammals in Neotropical forests. In this paper, we describe three such associations observed during an extensive large-vertebrate survey in central Amazonia, Brazil. Mixed-species groups between a primate species and another mammal were observed on seven occasions between squirrel monkeys (Saimiri cf. ustus) and either South American coatis (Nasua nasua) or tayras (Eira barbara) and between brown capuchins (Cebus apella) and coatis. All associations were restricted to floodplain forest during its dry stage. We suggest that the associations involving the coatis are connected to foraging and vigilance but may be induced by a common alternative food resource at a time of food shortage.     

Methods for simultaneous measurement of apoptosis and cell surface phenotype of epithelial cells in effusions by flow cytometry

We describe here a protocol for the detection of epithelial cells in effusions combined with quantification of apoptosis by flow cytometry (FCM). The procedure described consists of the following stages: culturing and induction of apoptosis by staurosporine in control ovarian carcinoma cell lines (SKOV-3 and OVCAR-8); preparation of effusion specimens and cell lines for staining; staining of cancer cells in effusions and cell lines for cell surface markers (Ber-EP4, EpCAM and CD45) and intracellular/nuclear markers of apoptosis (cleaved caspase-3 and caspase-8, and incorporated deoxyuridine triphosphates); and FCM analysis of stained cell lines and effusions. This protocol identifies a specific cell population in cytologically heterogeneous clinical specimens and applies two methods to measure different aspects of apoptosis in the cell population of interest. The cleaved caspase and deoxyuridine triphosphate incorporation FCM assays are run in parallel and require (including sample preparation, staining, instrument adjustment and data acquisition) 8 h. The culturing of cell lines requires 2-3 days and induction of apoptosis requires 16 h.