Analysis of a genome-wide association study-linked locus (CCR6) in Asian rheumatoid arthritis

A genome-wide association study in Japan identified the C-C chemokine receptor type 6 gene (CCR6) as associated with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). This finding has not been validated in other Asian populations. A case-control study involving 996 subjects, comprising 440 controls and 556 RA patients, was done to determine their anticyclic citrullinated peptide (anti-CCP) antibody status and CCR6 polymorphism (rs3093024) genotype. Three hundred eighty-seven patients were anti-CCP positive and 153 anti-CCP negative. Logistic regression showed that allele A was likely to increase the risk of developing RA among females via a recessive model (odds ratio [OR]=1.55, 95% confidence interval [CI]=1.01, 2.39), whereas the risk effect appeared to be reduced among males via an additive model (OR=0.60, 95% CI=0.42, 0.85). Considering only subjects who are anti-CCP positive, allele A increased RA risk among females via a recessive model (OR=1.68, 95% CI=1.07, 2.64) but decreased the risk among males via an additive model (OR=0.59, 95% CI=0.39, 0.89). We showed that CCR6 polymorphism was a risk factor among females but a protective factor among males. Functional studies are warranted to unravel the pathophysiological relevance of the gene variant and other linked variants with RA.     

Mechanism of destruction of microtubule structures by 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal

A major end product of lipid peroxidation, 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (HNE), is an electrophilic alkenal and produces Michael adducts with cellular proteins. It is known that exposure of cultured cells to HNE causes rapid disappearance of microtubule networks. In this study we addressed the mechanism. Immunochemical studies revealed that HNE preferentially modified alpha-tubulin in rat primary neuronal cells, PC12 cells, and rat fibroblast cell line 3Y1 cells. This was morphologically associated with the disappearance of microtubule structures in those cells. In a purified rat brain microtubule fraction, HNE modified unpolymerized tubulin and impaired its polymerizability, with a concomitant increase in insolubilized tubulin. Nevertheless, HNE had a marginal effect on the stability of pre-polymerized microtubules. These results suggest that disruption of microtubule assembly as a result of HNE modification of unpolymerized tubulin, rather than destruction of assembled microtubules, is responsible for the disappearance of microtubule structures in cells exposed to HNE.     

Molecular basis of the functional specificities of phototropin 1 and 2

A blue-light photoreceptor in plants, phototropin, mediates phototropism, chloroplast relocation, stomatal opening, and leaf-flattening responses. Phototropin is divided into two functional moieties, the N-terminal photosensory and the C-terminal signaling moieties. Phototropin perceives light stimuli by the light, oxygen or voltage (LOV) domain in the N-terminus; the signal is then transduced intramolecularly to the C-terminal kinase domain. Two phototropins, phot1 and phot2, which have overlapping and distinct functions, exist in Arabidopsis thaliana. Phot1 mediates responses with higher sensitivity than phot2. Phot2 mediates specific responses, such as the chloroplast avoidance response and chloroplast dark positioning. To elucidate the molecular basis for the functional specificities of phot1 and phot2, we exchanged the N- and C-terminal moieties of phot1 and phot2, fused them to GFP and expressed them under the PHOT2 promoter in the phot1 phot2 mutant background. With respect to phototropism and other responses, the chimeric phototropin consisting of phot1 N-terminal and phot2 C-terminal moieties (P1n/2cG) was almost as sensitive as phot1; whereas the reverse combination (P2n/1cG) functioned with lower sensitivity. Hence, the N-terminal moiety mainly determined the sensitivity of the phototropins. Unexpectedly, both P1n/2cG and P2n/1cG mediated the chloroplast avoidance response, which is specific to phot2. Hence, chloroplast avoidance activity appeared to be suppressed specifically in the combination of N- and C-terminal moieties of phot1. Unlike the chloroplast avoidance response, chloroplast dark positioning was observed for P2G and P2n/1cG but not for P1G or P1n/2cG, suggesting that a specific structure in the N-terminal moiety of phot2 is required for this activity.     

Flowering regulation by tissue specific functions of photoreceptors

Flowering is one of the most important steps in a plant life cycle. Plants utilize light as an informational source to determine the timing of flowering. In Arabidopsis, phytochrome A (phyA), phyB and cryptochrome2 (cry2) are major photoreceptors that regulate flowering. These photoreceptors perceive light stimuli by leaves for the regulation of flowering. A leaf is an organ consisting of different tissues such as epidermis, mesophyll and vascular bundles. In the present study, we examined in which tissue the light signals are perceived and how those signals are integrated within a leaf to regulate flowering. For this purpose, we established transgenic Arabidopsis lines that expressed a phyB-green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusion protein or a cry2-GFP fusion protein in organ/tissue-specific manners. Consequently, phyB was shown to perceive light stimuli in mesophyll. By contrast, cry2 functioned only in vascular bundles. We further confirmed that both phyB-GFP and cry2-GFP regulated flowering by altering the expression of a key flowering gene, FT, in vascular bundles. In summary, perception sites for different spectra of light are spatially separated within a leaf and the signals are integrated through the inter-tissue communication.Key words: photoreceptor, light, flowering, phytochrome, cryptochrome, inter-tissue signalThe timing of flowering is strictly regulated by environmental conditions such as light. Two aspects of light, spectral nature and photoperiod, dramatically affect flowering. In Arabidopsis, phyB and phyA/cry2 are the major photoreceptors mediating these responses. Although photoreceptors are expressed in almost all organs,¹ partial irradiation and grafting analyses have demonstrated that plants perceive light signals only in leaves.^2–4 However, roles for different tissues in a leaf remained unknown due to a lack of a proper method. To answer the question, we established Arabidopsis transgenic lines that expressed phyB-GFP or cry2-GFP on the respective mutant backgrounds. The resultant transgenic lines were examined for their flowering phenotype. Consequently, we found that phyB-GFP in mesophyll but not in other tissues regulated flowering.⁵ By contrast, cry2-GFP functioned only in vascular bundles.⁶A strong genetic interaction between phyB and cry2 in the regulation of flowering is known.^7,8 Cry2 regulates the flowering by suppressing the inhibitory effect of phyB on flowering. Hence, cry2 function is observed only in the presence of phyB. Conversely, the effect of phyB is exaggerated in the cry2 mutant, because phyB is not counteracted by cry2 in its absence. Here, we tested how phyB and cry2 in different tissues regulated flowering in the absence of the other photoreceptor. For this purpose, we took a physiological approach. Phenotype of the phyB-GFP lines was examined under monochromatic red light, in which phyB but not cyr2 is activated. As expected, phyB-GFP in mesophyll but not in vascular bundles strongly affected the flowering in this condition (Fig. 1A). We also tested the cry2-GFP function when phyB was not activated. Namely, plants were placed under blue light supplemented with strong far-red light. As expected, cry2-GFP failed to affect the flowering even under this condition regardless of where it was expressed (Fig. 1B).Open in a separate windowFigure 1FT expression under phyB or cry2 inactive conditions. Total RNA was extracted from the seedlings grown under long-day condition for 10 days and subjected to qRT-PCR for FT expression analysis. Data were normalized to the level of FT mRNA in (A) of the wild type, which was set to 1 arbitrary unit (a.u.). Mean ± SE (n = 4). WT, wild type. (A) Long-day red light, (16L 8D; 10 µmol m^-2 s^-1). WT, wild type; phyB, phyB mutant; Bpro, PHYB promoter-PHYB-GFP; PBT56, phyB-GFP in mesophyll; PBT239, phyB-GFP in vascular bundles.⁵ (B) Long-day blue and far-red light (16L 8D; blue light, 3 µmol m^-2 s^-1; far-red light, 10 µmol m^-2 s^-1). WT, wild type; cry2, cry2 mutant; pCRY-C2G, CRY2 promoter-CRY2-GFP; pCAB-C2G, CAB3 promoter-CRY2-GFP; pSUC-C2G, SUC2 promoter-CRY2-GFP.⁶Photoreceptors regulate flowering by altering the expression of a key flowering regulator, FT.^9,10 Interestingly, the FT gene is expressed specifically in vascular bundles.¹¹ Indeed, mesophyll phyB-GFP controlled the expression of FT in vascular bundles. Hence, there must be a mechanism by which the light signal is transduced from mesophyll to vascular bundles to regulate the FT expression in vascular bundles. It should be noted here that FT is not the sole factor involved in the light regulation of flowering. Factors such as CO, SPA, COP1 and PFT1 are known to link the photoreceptors and FT.^12–14 These factors most likely function in leaves. However, their function sites at the tissue level remain totally unknown except for CO. The biological clock is another class of machinery that is tightly related to the light signal transduction pathway.¹⁵ Unfortunately, function sites of the clock components for the regulation of flowering remain unclear. The future work should reveal those sites. Such analyses should finally provide a complete picture illustrating a network of the inter-tissue signaling for the regulation of flowering.The present work urges us to indentify the molecule that mediates the inter-tissue signaling between mesophyll and vascular bundles. Potential candidates include phytohormones, microRNA¹⁶ and peptides.¹⁷ Among phytohormones, gibberellin promotes flowering.¹⁸ However, gibberellin is probably not the answer because gibberellin does not alter the FT expression directly. Except gibberellin, no exogenously added phythromone dramatically affects flowering in Arabidopsis. It is known that microRNA such as miR172, miR159 and miR156 are involved in the regulation of flowering time.¹⁹ However, those microRNA''s neither regulate the FT expression nor are regulated by light. Since most of microRNA''s has not been intensively studied yet, it remains possible that one of them may mediate the above inter-tissue signal. Another potential candidate is a peptide. Although not much is known about peptide hormones in plants yet, peptides such as PSK,²⁰ xylogen²¹ and CLE²² have been shown to regulate cell growth and differentiation. Although none of peptides is known to regulate flowering in plants at present, a future work may reveal a novel peptide that mediates the inter-tissue signals for flowering.     

Transgene-mediated and elicitor-induced perturbation of metabolic channeling at the entry point into the phenylpropanoid pathway

3H-l-Phenylalanine is incorporated into a range of phenylpropanoid compounds when fed to tobacco cell cultures. A significant proportion of (3)H-trans-cinnamic acid formed from (3)H-l-phenylalanine did not equilibrate with exogenous trans-cinnamic acid and therefore may be rapidly channeled through the cinnamate 4-hydroxylase (C4H) reaction to 4-coumaric acid. Such compartmentalization of trans-cinnamic acid was not observed after elicitation or in cell cultures constitutively expressing a bean phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) transgene. Channeling between PAL and C4H was confirmed in vitro in isolated microsomes from tobacco stems or cell suspension cultures. This channeling was strongly reduced in microsomes from stems or cell cultures of transgenic PAL-overexpressing plants or after elicitation of wild-type cell cultures. Protein gel blot analysis showed that tobacco PAL1 and bean PAL were localized in both soluble and microsomal fractions, whereas tobacco PAL2 was found only in the soluble fraction. We propose that metabolic channeling of trans-cinnamic acid requires the close association of specific forms of PAL with C4H on microsomal membranes.     

The Induction of Seed Germination in Arabidopsis thaliana Is Regulated Principally by Phytochrome B and Secondarily by Phytochrome A

We examined whether spectrally active phytochrome A (PhyA) and phytochrome B (PhyB) play specific roles in the induction of seed germination in Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh., using PhyA- and PhyB-null mutants, fre1-1 (A. Nagatani, J.W. Reed, J. Chory [1993] Plant Physiol 102: 269-277) and hy3-Bo64 (J. Reed, P.Nagpal, D.S. Poole, M. Furuya, J. Chory [1993] Plant Cell 5: 147-157). When dormant seeds of each genotype imbibed in the dark on aqueous agar plates, the hy3 (phyB) mutant did not germinate, whereas the fre1 (phyA) mutant germinated at a rate of 50 to 60%, and the wild type (WT) germinated at a rate of 60 to 70%. By contrast, seeds of all genotypes germinated to nearly 100% when plated in continuous irradiation with white or red light. When plated in continuous far-red light, however, frequencies of seed germination of the WT and the fre1 and hy3 mutants averaged 14, nearly 0, and 47%, respectively, suggesting that PhyB in the red-absorbing form prevents PhyA-dependent germination under continuous far-red light. When irradiated briefly with red or far-red light after imbibition for 1 h, a typical photoreversible effect on seed germination was observed in the fre1 mutant and the WT but not in the hy3 mutant. In contrast, when allowed to imbibe in the dark for 24 to 48 h and exposed to red light, the seed germination frequencies of the hy3 mutant were more than 40%. Immunoblot analyses of the mutant seeds showed that PhyB apoprotein accumulated in dormant seeds of the WT and the fre1 mutant as much as in the seeds that had imbibed. In contrast, PhyA apoprotein, although detected in etiolated seedlings grown in the dark for 5 d, was not detectable in the dormant seeds of the WT and the hy3 mutant. The above physiological and immunochemical evidence indicates that PhyB in the far-red-absorbing form was stored in the Arabidopsis seeds and resulted in germination in the dark. Hence, PhyA does not play any role in dark germination but induces germination under continuous irradiation with far-red light. Finally, we examined seeds from a signal transduction mutant, det1, and a det1/hy3 double mutant. The det1 seeds exhibited photoreversible responses of germination on aqueous agar plates, and the det1/hy3 double mutant seeds did not. Hence, DET1 is likely to act in a distinct pathway from PhyB in the photoregulation of seed germination.     

Effect of variety and location on growth and yield components of Roselle,HIbiscus sabdariffa L. and its infestation with the spiny bollworm Earias insulana (BOISD.)

Three roselle, Hibiscus sabdariffa L. varieties (Sudani, Masri and White) were cultivated at three different locations to recognize the transportation ability of roselle cultivation from the narrow old valley land to broad new land in Egypt. Qena as origin in situ old land, El-Kanater as ex situ old land and Nubaria as ex situ new land were the considered locations. Six growth quantitative characters and bolls infestation by spiny bollworm, Earias insulana were evaluated. Growth characters of roselle plants were affected significantly by either variety or location. Qena region was more suitable for roselle plant growth as judged with plant height, number of branches, number of fruits and sepals dry weight, followed by Nubaria followed by El-Kanater. Whereas, plants grown at Nubaria produced more fresh sepals weight than Qena or El-Kanater grown plants. As for Sudani, Nubaria exhibited the tallest plants, with the highest number of fruits and the heaviest fresh sepals as compared with the corresponding plants in Qena or El-Kanater. Values of broad sense heritability were highest for all characters in Qena. While the number of fruits per plant had the highest heritability in all locations. Dry sepals yield had highly significant correlation with all studied characters except percentage of water loss in Qena and Nubaria. Path coefficient analysis confirmed that fresh sepals yield had the highest direct and indirect effects on dried sepals yield. Chemical constituents responsible to sepal quality tended to produce significant variations due to the changes in varieties or locations. The highest levels of anthocyanins and sugars were achieved by Sudani variety, but the highest levels of free amino acids and total soluble solids were recorded for Masri variety. Moreover, Nubaria region was the most favourable for the accumulation of more anthocyanins in the sepals of all varieties followed by Qena. Plants grown at Qena produced sepals with the highest levels of sugars, free amino acids, organic acids and total soluble solids, followed by Nubaria followed by El-Kanater plants. Infestation with spiny bollworm Earias insulana was increased from Sudani up to Masri up to White varieties. Plants grown at Nubaria had the lowest number of attacks by bolls in all varieties, followed by those at El-Kanater followed by Qena plants. Spiny bollworm infestation was positively correlated with the number of branches and dry sepals weight, but negatively correlated with sepal moisture loss and anthocyanin contents. These findings clearly indicated that the Nubaria region was considered as a promising reclaimed area suitable for roselle cultivation, especially for Sudani, the most economic variety.     

A Temporarily Red Light-Insensitive Mutant of Tomato Lacks a Light-Stable,B-Like Phytochrome

We have selected four recessive mutants in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) that, under continuous red light (R), have long hypocotyls and small cotyledons compared to wild type (WT), a phenotype typical of phytochrome B (phyB) mutants of other species. These mutants, which are allelic, are only insensitive to R during the first 2 days upon transition from darkness to R, and therefore we propose the gene symbol tri (temporarily red light insensitive). White light-grown mutant plants have a more elongated growth habit than that of the WT. An immunochemically and spectrophotometrically detectable phyB-like polypeptide detectable in the WT is absent or below detection limits in the tri1 mutant. In contrast to the absence of an elongation growth response to far-red light (FR) given at the end of the daily photoperiod (EODFR) in all phyB-deficient mutants so far characterized, the tri1 mutant responds to EODFR treatment. The tri1 mutant also shows a strong response to supplementary daytime far-red light. We propose that the phyB-like phytochrome deficient in the tri mutants plays a major role during de-etiolation and that other light-stable phytochromes can regulate the EODFR and shade-avoidance responses in tomato.     

New lv Mutants of Pea Are Deficient in Phytochrome B

The lv-1 mutant of pea (Pisum sativum L.) is deficient in responses regulated by phytochrome B (phyB) in other species but has normal levels of spectrally active phyB. We have characterized three further lv mutants (lv-2, lv-3, and lv-4), which are all elongated under red (R) and white light but are indistinguishable from wild type under far-red light. The phyB apoprotein present in the lv-1 mutant was undetectable in all three new lv mutants. The identification of allelic mutants with and without phyB apoprotein suggests that Lv may be a structural gene for a B-type phytochrome. Furthermore, it indicates that the lv-1 mutation results specifically in the loss of normal biological activity of this phytochrome. Red-light-pulse and fluence-rate-response experiments suggest that lv plants are deficient in the low-fluence response (LFR) but retain a normal very-low-fluence-rate-dependent response for leaflet expansion and inhibition of stem elongation. Comparison of lv alleles of differing severity indicates that the LFR for stem elongation can be mediated by a lower level of phyB than the LFR for leaflet expansion. The retention of a strong response to continuous low-fluence-rate R in all four lv mutants suggests that there may be an additional phytochrome controlling responses to R in pea. The kinetics of phytochrome destruction and reaccumulation in the lv mutant indicate that phyB may be involved in the light regulation of phyA levels.