Apoptosis in SIV infection

Pathogenic human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection is associated with increased T-cell apoptosis. In marked contrast to HIV infection in humans and SIV infection in macaques, the SIV infection of natural host species is typically nonpathogenic despite high levels of viral replication. In these nonpathogenic primate models, no observation of T-cell apoptosis was observed, suggesting that either SIV is less capable of directly inducing apoptosis in natural hosts (likely as a result of coevolution/coadaptation with the host) or, alternatively, that the indirect T-cell apoptosis plays the key role in determining the HIV-associated T-cell depletion and progression to acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Understanding the molecular and cellular mechanisms responsible for the disease-free equilibrium in natural hosts for SIV infection, including those determining the absence of high levels of T-cell apoptosis, is likely to provide important clues regarding the mechanisms of AIDS pathogenesis in humans.     

Processing bodies require RNA for assembly and contain nontranslating mRNAs

Recent experiments have defined cytoplasmic foci, referred to as processing bodies (P-bodies), wherein mRNA decay factors are concentrated and where mRNA decay can occur. However, the physical nature of P-bodies, their relationship to translation, and possible roles of P-bodies in cellular responses remain unclear. We describe four properties of yeast P-bodies that indicate that P-bodies are dynamic structures that contain nontranslating mRNAs and function during cellular responses to stress. First, in vivo and in vitro analysis indicates that P-bodies are dependent on RNA for their formation. Second, the number and size of P-bodies vary in response to glucose deprivation, osmotic stress, exposure to ultraviolet light, and the stage of cell growth. Third, P-bodies vary with the status of the cellular translation machinery. Inhibition of translation initiation by mutations, or cellular stress, results in increased P-bodies. In contrast, inhibition of translation elongation, thereby trapping the mRNA in polysomes, leads to dissociation of P-bodies. Fourth, multiple translation factors and ribosomal proteins are lacking from P-bodies. These results suggest additional biological roles of P-bodies in addition to being sites of mRNA degradation.     

Usher syndrome type I and the differentiation of inner ear sensory cells' hair bundles

Defects in myosin VIIa, the PDZ-domain-containing protein harmonin, cadherin 23, protocadherin 15, and the putative scaffolding protein sans, underlie five genetic forms of Usher syndrome type I (USH1), the most frequent cause of hereditary deafness-blindness in humans. Mice mutants defective for any of these proteins have a severe hearing impairment and display similar inner ear phenotypes characterized by the abnormal spreading of the sensory cells' stereocilia. These are highly specialized mechanoreceptive organelles derived from microvilli, that normally form a well-structured hair bundle at the apex of inner ear sensory cells. All the USH1 proteins, except sans, have been detected in the growing stereocilia. Moreover, biochemical studies have started to unravel the multiple direct molecular interactions between USH1 proteins. In particular, harmonin can bind to the other four USH1 proteins and to F-actin. Finally, cell biology studies have provided the first insights into the functions of these proteins, and revealed that cadherin 23, and probably protocadherin 15 also, are associated with transient lateral links that interconnect growing stereocilia. These connectors play a critical role in the differentiating hair bundle.     

The open-eyelid mutation, lidgap-Gates, is an eight-exon deletion in the mouse Map3k1 gene

The BALB/cGa mouse strain and its descendants, now called the SELH/Bc strain, have produced two waves of high frequency of spontaneous heritable mutations. One of these, the recessive lidgap-Gates (lg(Ga)) mutation, causes the same open-eyelids-at-birth phenotype as the gene knockout mutations of Map3k1 and co-maps to distal Chr 13. The lg(Ga) mutation is demonstrated to be a 27.5-kb deletion of exons 2-9 in the Map3k1 gene, the first spontaneous mutant allele described at this locus. The lg(Ga) mutation is consistent with a pattern suggesting that the waves of mutation in BALB/cGa and its descendants tend to be large deletions or ETn insertions, whose elevated rate of occurrence is due to an unknown mechanism.     

Inhibitors of efflux pumps in Gram-negative bacteria

In Gram-negative bacteria, efflux complexes, consisting of an inner-membrane pump, a periplasmic adaptor protein and outer-membrane channel, provide an efficient means for the export of structurally unrelated drugs, causing the multidrug-resistance phenotype. Resistance due to this antibiotic efflux is an increasing problem worldwide. A new molecular challenge is to combat this transport by searching for new molecules to block efflux and thus restore drug susceptibility to resistant clinical strains. Recent data shed new light on the structure and activity of the archetypal efflux pumps AcrAB-TolC and MexAB-OprM. Here, we describe recent insights into the molecular mechanisms of bacterial efflux pumps and their inhibitors. Current progress for the clinical use of efflux-pump inhibitors and new strategies to combat the drug-efflux mechanisms will be discussed.     

Consensual immunity: success-driven development of T-helper-1 and T-helper-2 responses

Non-germline-encoded T- and B-cell receptors allow humans to effectively deal with rapidly mutating pathogens. Here, we argue that, in addition to determining the antigenic specificity of immune responses, the same receptor systems can also regulate the T-helper-1/T-helper-2 profile of immunity. Such a mechanism--based on feedback from distinct effector cells to dendritic cells, rather than on instruction from pathogens--uses the effectiveness of particular effector cells at targeting and destroying a pathogen as a reliable, experience-based criterion to induce and maintain the appropriately polarized response.