Electrical injury mechanisms: electrical breakdown of cell membranes

Electric fields are capable of damaging cells through both thermal and nonthermal mechanisms. While joule heating is generally recognized to mediate tissue injury in electrical trauma, the possible role of electrical breakdown of cell membranes has not been thoroughly considered. Evidence is presented suggestive that in many instances of electrical trauma the local electrical field is of sufficient magnitude to cause electrical breakdown of cell membranes and cell lysis. In theory, large cells such as muscle and nerve cells are more vulnerable to electrical breakdown. To illustrate the significance of cell size and orientation, a geometrically simple model of an elongated cell is analyzed.     

Site-directed mutagenesis to determine essential residues of ribulose-bisphosphate carboxylase ofRhodospirillum rubrum

Both Lys-166 and His-291 of ribulosebisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase fromRhodospirillum rubrum have been implicated as the active-site residue that initiates catalysis. To decide between these two candidates, we resorted to site-directed mutagenesis to replace Lys-166 and His-291 with several amino acids. All 7 of the position-166 mutants tested are severely deficient in carboxylase activity, whereas the alanine and serine mutants at position 291 are ∼40% and ∼18% as active as the native carboxylase, essentially ruling out His-291 in theRhodospirillum rubrum carboxylase (and by inference His-298 in the spinach enzyme) as a catalytically essential residue. The ability of some of the mutant proteins to undergo carbamate formation or to bind either ribulosebisphosphate or a transition-state analogue remains largely unimpaired. This implies that Lys-166 is not required for substrate binding; rather, the results corroborate the earlier postulate that Lys-166 functions as an acid-base group in catalysis or in stabilizing a transition state in the reaction pathway.     

新疆绿蟾蜍的染色体组型初步研究

近年来,有关两栖类的染色体组型已有不少报道。无尾两栖类中蜍蟾属(Bufo)的染色体数目分为两类:2n=22和2n=20(Blain,1972)。我们对采自新疆4个地区的绿蟾蜍进行了染色体组型分析,发现其二倍体细胞染色体数均为44,是四倍体。现将我们的初步研究报道如下。     

Demonstration of structural differences between the two subunits of human-plasma fibronectin in the carboxy-terminal heparin-binding domain

Structural differences between the two subunits of human plasma fibronectin were studied by analyzing the carboxy-terminal heparin-binding domain (Hep-2). Two fragments (29 kDa and 38 kDa) derived from the Hep-2 domain were purified from thermolysin-digested human plasma fibronectin. Identical NH2-terminal sequences were obtained for both fragments through 16 Edman cycles. Neither domain contained the 90-amino-acid extra domain which is predicted by cDNA analysis of the cellular form of fibronectin. We have examined the primary structures of the 29-kDa and 38-kDa Hep-2 domains produced from the two chains of plasma fibronectin by analyzing the tryptic peptides by fast atom bombardment/mass spectrometry and comparison with the predicted fragments deduced from the corresponding cDNA-derived peptide sequences. Peptides that were unique to each domain were further characterized by microsequence analysis. The two domains showed identical amino acid sequences through 274 residues, followed by a region of variability. The 29-kDa domain contains 279 amino acids with an estimated relative molecular mass (Mr) of 30,460. This domain is located in the heavy chain of plasma fibronectin and contains three repeats of type III sequences plus a portion of the connecting segment (IIICS) region. The 38-kDa domain contains 359 amino acids and one O-linked glycosyl unit for an estimated Mr of 39,263. This domain is from the light chain of plasma fibronectin and contains four repeats of type III sequences with the deletion of the entire 120-amino-acid IIICS area. Secondary structure analysis by Chou/Fasman and circular dichroism reveals extensive beta-sheet structure for these domains. Key sulfhydryl and glycosylation sites are located near the mRNA splice junctions for the two chains. It is postulated that the splice junctions are adjacent to a flexible domain joining two regions of extensive beta-sheet structure.     

Reciprocal effects of epidermal growth factor and transforming growth factor beta on the anchorage-dependent and -independent growth of A431 epidermoid carcinoma cells

The effects of epidermal growth factor (EGF) and transforming growth factor beta (TGF beta) on the growth of A431 epidermoid carcinoma cells were studied. Whereas the monolayer growth of A431 cells was inhibited by EGF, it was stimulated by TGF beta. Contrary to the effects on the monolayer growth, EGF stimulated the soft agar growth of A431 cells. The stimulatory effects of TGF beta on the anchorage-dependent growth were antagonized by EGF and those of EGF on anchorage-independent growth were antagonized by TGF beta. These results suggest that both factors not only convey the proliferative signals to A431 cells but also induce phenotypic changes, resulting in a preference for either anchorage-dependent or anchorage-independent growth. Moreover, as the stimulatory effects of EGF on the soft agar growth of A431 cells paralleled its reported stimulatory effects on their in vivo growth, it is also suggested that in vivo responses of cells to certain growth factors may correlate better with their responses in soft agar culture than with those in monolayer culture.     

Molecular cloning of Clostridium difficile toxin A gene fragment in lambda gt11

Toxin A of Clostridium difficile has been purified and monospecific antiserum produced. A reliable procedure for isolation and restriction of C. difficile chromosomal DNA was developed which allowed for the construction of a genomic library in lambda gt11. Approx. 35,000 plaques were screened using anti-toxin A which resulted in the identification of one stable positive clone, lambda cd19. Verification of the immunological identity of the isolated toxin A gene fragment in lambda cd19 was determined by affinity purifying toxin A antibodies specific for lambda cd19 gene product, and using these selected antibodies to probe a Western blot of purified toxin A. The insert in lambda cd19 was demonstrated to be a 0.3 kb fragment by restriction digestion, and by hybridization of the clone to a chromosomal digest of C. difficile. The peptide coded for by the toxin A gene fragment in lambda cd19 was not cytotoxic for 3T3 mammalian tissue culture cells.     

Isolation of a rat mitochondrial release factor. Accommodation of the changed genetic code for termination

A single release factor has been isolated and partially purified from rat mitochondria. It requires ethanol in addition to the specific termination codon when assayed in a heterologous system with Escherichia coli ribosomes. The factor recognizes the codons UAA and UAG but not UGA, and therefore it has been designated mtRF-1. A factor of the bacterial RF-2 type, which in E. coli recognizes UGA, or of the mammalian type, which recognizes all three termination codons, has not been detected in mitochondria. The absence of a factor responding to UGA accommodates the use of this codon as a signal for tryptophan in the rat mitochondrial genetic code. The mtRF-1 could translate all of the known termination codons in the rat mitochondrial genome. It does not respond to AGG and AGA which in bovine and human mitochondrial DNA code for termination but which in rat mitochondria may not code for either an amino acid or for termination.     

The final step in the de novo biosynthesis of platelet-activating factor. Properties of a unique CDP-choline:1-alkyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol choline-phosphotransferase in microsomes from the renal inner medulla of rats

Final steps in the synthesis of platelet activating factor (PAF) occur via two enzymatic reactions: the acetylation of 1-alkyl-2-lyso-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine by a specific acetyltransferase or the transfer of the phosphocholine base group from CDP-choline to 1-alkyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol by a dithiothreitol (DTT)-insensitive cholinephosphotransferase. Our studies demonstrate that rat kidney inner medulla microsomes synthesize PAF primarily via the DTT-insensitive cholinephosphotransferase since the specific activity of this enzyme is greater than 100-fold higher than the acetyltransferase. The two cholinephosphotransferases that catalyze the biosynthesis of phosphatidylcholine and PAF have similar Mg2+ or Mn2+ requirements and are inhibited by Ca2+. Also topographic experiments indicated that both activities are located on the cytoplasmic face of microsomal vesicles. PAF synthesis was slightly stimulated by 10 mM DTT, whereas the enzymatic synthesis of phosphatidylcholine was inhibited greater than 95% under the same conditions. The concept of two separate enzymes for PAF and phosphatidylcholine synthesis is further substantiated by the differences in the two microsomal cholinephosphotransferase activities with respect to pH optima, substrate specificities, and their sensitivities to temperature, deoxycholate, or ethanol. Study of the substrate specificities of the DTT-insensitive cholinephosphotransferase showed that the enzyme prefers a lipid substrate with 16:0 or 18:1 sn-1-alkyl chains. Short chain esters at the sn-2 position (acetate or propionate) are utilized by the DTT-insensitive cholinephosphotransferase, but analogs with acetamide or methoxy substituents at the sn-2 position are not substrates. Also, CDP-choline is the preferred water-soluble substrate when compared to CDP-ethanolamine. Utilization of endogenous neutral lipids as a substrate by the DTT-insensitive cholinephosphotransferase demonstrated that sufficient levels of alkylacetylglycerols are normally present in rat kidney microsomes to permit the synthesis of physiological quantities of PAF. These data suggest the renal DTT-insensitive cholinephosphotransferase could be a potentially important enzyme in the regulation of systemic blood pressure.     

Induction of monocytic differentiation of HL-60 cells by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D analogs

1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3, the hormonal form of vitamin D, induces differentiation of HL-60 human promyelocytes into monocyte-like cells in vitro. We assessed the relative activity of 30 analogs of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 in inducing development of monocytic markers in HL-60 cells. The three differentiation markers assayed were nonspecific acid esterase activity, nitro blue tetrazolium reducing activity, and phagocytic capacity. Of the known metabolites of vitamin D, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 is the most active; 50% of the cells exhibit the mature phenotype following a 4-day treatment with 10(-8) M 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3. Removal of either the C-1 or C-25-hydroxyl group reduces activity by 2 orders of magnitude, while epimerization of the 1 alpha- to 1 beta-hydroxyl group virtually abolishes activity. Elongation of the steroidal side chain of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 by addition of one carbon at C-24 or C-26 improves the potency by an order of magnitude. Truncation of the steroidal side chain leads to a 10-fold reduction in activity for each carbon removed. Elimination of the C-26 and C-27 methyl groups reduces activity 100-fold. Analogs with short aliphatic side chains as 1 alpha-hydroxyhomo- and bishomopregnacholecalciferol have surprisingly high activity, being only 20-fold less potent than the natural hormone. The activity of most analogs in the HL-60 system parallels their known relative affinities for the well characterized 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 receptor in chick intestine, providing further evidence that this function of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 is receptor mediated.     

Studies on the mechanisms of neurulation in the chick: morphometric analysis of the relationship between regional variations in cell shape and sites of motive force generation

Microfilaments, which are organized into bundles in the apical ends of neuroepithelial cells, are generally thought to play a major role in generating the driving forces for neural tube closure. Because of their proximity to the luminal surface, the contractile activity of these microfilament bundles results in conspicuous changes in the overall shape of neuroepithelial cells, most notably apical constriction and apical surface folding. In the present study, we have used morphometric methods and computer-assisted image analysis to reveal the distribution of microfilament-mediated forces in the developing midbrain during initial contact of apposing neural folds in chick embryos at Hamburger and Hamilton stage 8+ of development (Hamburger and Hamilton (1951) J. Morphol., 88:49-92). The degree of apical constriction, apical surface folding, and bending of the neuroepithelium was used as a barometer of local microfilament activity. Results indicate that cells forming the floor and midlateral walls of the developing midbrain consistently show a higher degree of apical constriction and surface folding than those at other locations. These same regions of the neuroepithelium also exhibit the greatest degree of bending. We conclude that the principal driving forces for closure of the neural tube, at the level of the midbrain, are concentrated in certain regions of the neuroepithelium (i.e., the floor and midlateral walls of the forming neural tube) rather than uniformly distributed.