Higher-primate phylogeny--why can't we decide?

At present, no definitive agreement on either the correct branching order or differential rates of evolution among the higher primates exists, despite the accumulated integration of decades of morphological, immunological, protein and nucleic acid sequence data, and numerous reasonable theoretical models for the analysis, interpretation, and understanding of those data. Of the three distinct unrooted phylogenetic trees, that joining human with chimpanzee and the gorilla with the orangutan is currently favored, but the two alternatives that group humans with either gorillas or the orangutan rather than with chimpanzees also have support. This paper is a synthetic and critical review of the methodological literature and isolates some 20 specific reasons why uncertainty in the evolutionary understanding of our closest living relatives persists. Many of the difficulties are eliminated or ameliorated by Lake's new methods of phylogenetic invariants and operator metrics. In the companion paper these new methods are used to analyze both the nuclear and mitochondrial DNA of the higher primates.      

The consumption, digestion and utilization of food by Locusts

A comparative study was made of the consumption, digestion and utilization of cabbage by the 3rd-, 4th- and 5th-instar hoppers of Schistocerca gregaria and Locusta migratoria. The rate of consumption (C.I.) and the digestibility (except in 3rd instar) of cabbage by Locusta hoppers were greater than by Schistocerca hoppers. However, weight increase, growth rate (except in 4th instar), gross and net efficiency of food utilization were found to be significantly higher in Schistocerca hoppers than in Locusta hoppers. The total live weight gain of Schistocerca hoppers for a period of 18 days was about twice that in Locusta hoppers. Slower growth rate and lesser efficiency of food utilization by Locusta hoppers were considered to be due to nutrient imbalance of cabbage for Locusta.

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Zusammenfassung Es wurde eine vergleichende Untersuchung des Verbrauchs, der Verdauung und der Ausnutzung von Kohl durch das 3., 4. und 5. Larvenstadium von Schistocerca gregaria und Locusta migratoria durchgeführt. Die Verbrauchsrate (C.I.) und die Verdaulichkeit von Kohl war (mit Ausnahme des 3. Larvenstadiums) bei Locusta-Larven größer als bei Schistocerca-Larven. Jedoch erwiesen sich Gewichtszunahme, Wachstumsrate (mit Ausnahme des 4. Larvenstadiums), Brutto- und Netto-Wirkungsgrad der. Nahrungsverwertung bei Schistocerca-Larven als signifikant höher als bei denen von Locusta. Die gesamte Lebendgewichtszunahme von Schistocerca-Larven war über einen Zeitraum von 18 Tagen etwa zweimal so groß wie bei Locusta-Larven. Die langsamere Wachstumsrate und der geringere Wirkungsgrad der Nahrungsausnutzung durch die Locusta-Larven werden als Folge der nutritiven Unausgeglichenheit von Kohl für Locusta angesehen.

     

Ecological study of soil fungi of an agricultural field in Allahabad

Summary The soil fungi from an agricultural field in Allahabad where sugarcane is being grown for many years, have been isolated from various depths during different seasons and were identified. The inter-relations of chemical composition of soil and distribution of fungi is also being shown here.The techniques for the isolation and the study of the fungus flora was that ofGoddard modified bySaksena &Mehrotra. Soil samples were examined from 1–6 depths in three seasons of the year and were mechanically and chemically analysed.For the isolation, soil dilution plate method, a modification ofMenzies' method, direct method ofWaksman, Rossi Cholodny Burried slide technique, and screened immersion plate method, were followed Fifty five different species of microfungi belonging to Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes and Fungi — Imperfecti were isolated and identified. The moisture contents, hydrogen-ion concentrations, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium and iron, etc., of the soil samples from 1–6 inches depths, were also studied.Out of these 12 species covering 9 genera belonged to the Phycomycetes, nine genera of Ascomycetes and nine genera of Fungi Imperfecti were recorded.P. multicolor Grigorieva-Monoilova &Poradielova, andP. roqueforti Thom.,Gliocladium vermoesoni (Biourge)Thom. andMasoniella grisea (Smith)Smith were recorded for the first time from Indian Soil. A new varietyChaetominum nigricolor Ames var.simplex was also isolated.     

Quantitation of junctional and extrajunctional acetylcholine receptors by electron microscope autoradiography after (125)I-α-bungarotoxin binding at mouse neuromuscular junctions

The distribution and quantitation of 125I-alpha-bungarotoxin (alpha-BTX) binding sites and thus acetylcholine receptor (AChR) were determined in mouse sternomastoid muscle by electron microscope autoradiography. We found that a valid criterion for receptor saturation at the neuromuscular junction was the complete elimination of neurally evoked tetanic muscle contractions, since, when such a criterion was used for the endpoint of toxin incubation, alpha-BTX was bound to approximately 90% of total available endplate sites. When, without implying localization, the presynaptic axonal membrane was used as a convenient reference structure, the concentration of alpha-BTX relative to this membrane was determined to be 46,000 +/- 27% sites/mum2.     

Étude de Gilbertella: I. Influence des facteurs physiques et nutritifs sur la morphologie de gilbertella persicaria (Eddy) Hesseltine et Gilbertella persicaria var. indica Mehrotra et mehrotra. II. Étude comparative biochimique. Position taxonomique

A comparative morphological, physiological and biochemical study ofGilbertella persicaria andGilbertella persicaria var.indica has been made. The two organisms differ not only in the morphological characters (phototropic branched hyphae bearing sporangia and rate of growth) but also in their cellular contents, with regard to amino acids, organic acids, lipids and fatty acids.Quantitative determinations of the free amino acids during the course of development of the species and the variety in media containing different sugars, show that the two organisms differ in the following groups of amino acids: glutamic acid group, glycine-alanine group and tyrosine group.The species synthesizes citric acid, malic acid, succinic acid, fumaric acid and one unknown organic acid, whereas the variety synthesizes glyceric acid, lactic acid and two unknown acids in addition to the first four organic acids of the species.The amount of lipids in the variety is higher than that of the species under all the cultural conditions. Further, the difference between the two organisms lies in oleic acid. This acid is three times and less than one time more in quantity in the species than in the variety with mannose and trehalose, respectively. From the biochemical studies it is evident that the metabolism of the two organisms is different.The taxonomic position ofGilbertella has been discussed. The important morphological and physiological characters in which the genus shows similarities with the Choanephoraceae are: morphology of asexual apparatus and negligible or no growth in the absence of thiamine. On the other hand, the genus exhibits a number of morphological and physiological differences from the family Choanephoraceae.Sporulation inGilbertella is more intense than in the family. Besides, it produces phototropic branched hyphae bearing sporangia. Normally the family produces two different asexual structures (sporangia and sporangiola inBlakeslea: sporangia and conidia inChoanephora), whereas in the genus only sporangia are produced. Sporangia in the genus, unlike the family, deliquisce at maturity.Zygospores in the genus, unlike the characteristic sexual spores of the family, are Mucor-type.Gilbertella persicaria (IMI 101698) is found to develop a good number of Mucor-type zygospores, when mated withMucor luteus (obtained from Prof.Montant). No such mating is reported between Choanephoraceae andMucor spp.The rate and amount of growth ofGilbertella is generally much superior to that of the family. The genus grows and sporulates satisfactorily at low pH values (2.5 and 3.0) which are not suitable for the family. Besides, it utilizes quite satisfactorily both nitrite and nitrate nitrogen, whereas the family fails to grow on these nitrogen compounds.The genus may be separated from the family Choanephoraceae in view of the characteristic physiological differences and Mucor-type zygospores, and suitably placed in the Mucoraceae after broadening the concept of the family to include forms with appendaged sporangiospores (Hesseltine, 1960). A detailed study of lipids inG. persicaria by column chromatography has been made and the thirteen different fractions have been analysed. The fraction no. 12 richest in phospholipids (with and without amino groups) was analysed for amino acids. It was found to contain 33.14% of ethanolamine. Further, it contained glycerol, mannose and an unidentified sugar.A new method for measuring sporulation inGilbertella persicaria with the help of Densitometer Chromoscan is described. This method is suitable for fungi with intense and homogenous sporulation on solid agar medium.

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Resume Une étude comparative morphologique, physiologique et biochimique deGilbertella persicaria etGilbertella persicaria var.indica a été effectuée. Les deux organismes diffèrent non seulement par les caractères morphologiques (les hyphes phototropiques ramifiées portant des sporanges; et la vitesse de croissance) mais aussi par leurs contenus cellulaires en ce qui concerne les acides aminés, les acides organiques, les lipides et les acides gras.L'analyse quantitative des acides aminés libres constitutifs au cours du développement de l'espèce et de sa variété, cultivées sur différents sucres, montre des différences importantes entre les deux organismes. Ces différences résident dans les groupes suivants d'acides amines: groupe de l'acide glutamique, groupe du glycocolle-alanine et groupe de la tyrosine.L'espèce synthétise les acides citrique, malique, succinique, fumarique et un acide organique inconnu, tandis que la variété synthétise les acides glycerique, lactique et deux acides organiques inconnus; en plus les quatre premiers acides organiques de l'espèce.La synthèse des lipides chez les deux organismes est influencée par les facteurs physiques ainsi que par les facteurs nutritifs. De plus, la quantité de lipides synthétisée chez la variété est généralement plus élevée que chez l'espèce. Une différence très importante entre les deux champignons relative à l'acide oléique apparaît lorsqu'ils sont cultivés sur un milieu contenant du mannose ou du tréhalose. Avec l'espèce cet acide est trois fois plus abondant qu'avec variété sur le tréhalose, cet acide n'excède guère la moitié de la valeur obtenue avec la variété.La position taxonimique deGilbertella a été discutée. Les caractères morphologiques et physiologiques importants par lesquels le genre montre des similitudes avec les Choanéphoracées sont: la morphologie de l'appareil asexué et une croissance négligeable ou nulle en absence de thiamine. Par contre, le genre montre un certain nombre de différences morphologiques et physiologiques avec la famille.La sporulation deGilbertella est plus importante que celle des diverses espèces de Choanéphoracées. Il existe d'autre part dans le genre des hyphes phototropiques très caractéristiques. La famille des Choanéphoracées forme deux types de fructifications asexuelles: sporanges et sporangioles (Blakeslea): sporanges et conidies (Choanéphora) alors queGilbertella ne produit que des sporanges déliquescentes à maturité.Gilbertella forme normalement de très nombreuses chlamydospores à l'inverse des Choanéphoracées.Les zygospores deGilbertella sont de typeMucor et peuvent même provenir du croisement deGilbertella persicaria (IMI 101698) etMucor luteus, alors que cette aptitude n'a pas été observée avec les Choanéphoracées.La croissance deGilbertella est plus rapide que celle des Choanéphoracées et le poids sec normalement plus élevé; les pH acides (2.5 et 3) sont mieux supportés parGilbertella que par les Choanéphoracées; ces dernières à l'inverse deGilbertella n'assimilent pas l'azote minéral (nitrite ou nitrate).En définitive, les différences d'ordre morphologique entre le genreGilbertella et les Choanéphoracées sont donc confirmées par les caractéristiques physiologiques et biochimiques que nous venons de mettre en évidence et nous adopterons la conception d'Hesseltine (1960) qui suggérait de rangerGilbertella chez les Mucoracées et la considérerons comme parfaitement acceptable.Une nouvelle méthode pour mesurer la sporulation chezGilbertella persicaria à l'aide du Densitomètre Chromoscan est décrite. Cette méthode est convenable pour les champignons sporulant d'une manière intense et homogène sur les milieux gélosés.

     

Studies of soil moisture stress in barley (Hordeum vulgare L.)

Summary The objective was to find the optimum range of water contents for inducing better growth, physiological efficiency and yield potential of barley plants (Hordeum vulgare L. var. K18). A pot culture experiment was conducted in the Division of Crop Physiology and Biochemistry Kanpur-2. The plants were subjected to various soil moisture stresses,i.e., 0.15, 0.30, 0.45, 0.60 and 0.75 atm tension throughout the crop growth period measured by irrometers.Plants maintained at 0.45 soil moisture tension required 19.07 litre of water and had the best water use efficiency (1765 mg dm/litre of water) which favourably influenced the leaf water balance (85.9%), plant growth as measured by plant height (85.4 cm) and tiller production (35.6) per hill, photosynthetic efficiency (2.185 mg CO₂/g dm/h), grain number (722) and grain yield (33.7 g) per hill while plants irrigated at a tension greater than 0.45 SMT did not develop as well. However, protein and gluten percentage increased gradually with the subsequent increase in soil moisture tension. On the other hand respiration rate (2.090 mg CO₂/g dm/hr) and leaf area (4375 cm²) were recorded to be the highest at 0.60 and 0.30 atm SMT respectively.Thus it is suggested that for reaping high harvest of barley crop, the physiological need of water (19.07 litre) in total of plant life should be made available through scheduled irrigation based on maintenance of plant at 0.45 SMT from seeding to maturity.     

Progesterone potentiating effect of Dipsacus mitis D. Don for its contraceptive action in hamster

A pure compound, isolated from ethyl acetate extract (root) of D. mitis D. Don, prevented pregnancy by 100% in adult female hamster but partially in rat when administered orally on Days 1-7 and 1-10 post-coitum respectively. The effective dose in both species was 150 mg/kg. Using uterine wet weight in ovariectomized immature rat as bioassay method, the compound was found to be devoid of estrogenic and antiestrogenic property. On examination for progestational and antiprogestational activity, using trauma-induced deciduoma formation in immature rat uterus as end points, the compound (per se) did not show the former activity but in a conjoint treatment with progesterone it augmented the action of latter. The compound was assumed to act by potentiating progesterone biosynthesis, the excess of which might be the cause for interruption of pregnancy in hamster. This is the first study to report contraceptive efficacy and mode of its action at the uterine level.     

Salivary mucin MG1 is comprised almost entirely of different glycosylated forms of the MUC5B gene product

The MG1 population of mucins was isolated from human whole salivas by gel chromatography followed by isopycnic density gradient centrifugation. The reduced and alkylated MG1 mucins, separated by anion exchange chromatography, were of similar size (radius of gyration 55-64 nm) and molecular weight (2.5-2.9 x 10(6) Da). Two differently-charged populations of MG1 subunits were observed which showed different reactivity with monoclonal antibodies to glycan epitopes. Monosaccharide and amino acid compositional analyses indicated that the MG1 subunits had similar glycan structures on the same polypeptide. An antiserum recognizing the MUC5B mucin was reactive across the entire distribution, whereas antisera raised against the MUC2 and MUC5AC mucins showed no reactivity. Western blots of agarose gel electrophoresis of fractions across the anion exchange distribution indicated that the polypeptide underlying the mucins was the product of the MUC5B gene. Amino acid analysis and peptide mapping performed on the fragments produced by trypsin digestion of the two MG1 populations yielded data similar to that obtained for MUC5B mucin subunits prepared from respiratory mucus (Thornton et al., 1997) and confirmed that the MUC5B gene product was the predominant mucin polypeptide present. Isolation of the MG1 mucins from the secretions of the individual salivary glands (palatal, sublingual, and submandibular) indicate that the palatal gland is the source of the highly charged population of the MUC5B mucin.     

Detection and estimation of aflatoxins using both chemical and biological techniques

Production of aflatoxins on both natural (rice and corn) and semisynthetic (YES) media was conducted using an identified toxin-producing strain ofAspergillus flavus. TheA flavus strain was able to produce 4 types of aflatoxins, namely B₁, B₂, G₁, and G₂ on rice, corn, and YES media. Quantitative data showed that the concentrations of aflatoxins B₁ and G₁ produced were 52, 40.3, and 39.6; and 64.7, 45.0, and 58.0jug for 50g of rice, corn, and YES media, respectively. In comparison, the yielded amounts of aflatoxins B₂ and G₂ were much lower: 11.5, 17.9, and 17.5; and 28.S, 40.3, and 39.5 μg for 50 g of rice, corn, and YES media, respectively. A bioassay was conducted using the following 5 standard bacterial strains:Bacillus megaterium. Bacillus subtilis, Streptococcus faecal is, Staphylococcus epidermidis, andParacoccus denitrificans as well as a field strain of Candida albicans. All strains exceptP denitrificans showed varied degrees of inhibition when applied with crude aflatoxins at 5 to 40μg/mL. The minimum concentration of crude aflatoxins needed to inhibitP denitrificans was 10μg/mL. Moreover,Candida albicans was not inhibited at any concentration of aflatoxins applied in this work. Both undiluted and diluted (1/10, 1/100, and 1/1000) bacterial broth cultures showed a direct relationship between the diameter of inhibition zones and the concentrations of crude aflatoxins. Mean diameters of (7.0–20.5), (5–14), (4.5–13.0), (3.0–12.0), and (1.5–11.0) mm were observed when various concentrations of aflatoxins were applied usingB megaterium, S epidermidis, S faecal is, B subtilis, andP denitrificans, respectively. Field trials were applied to testify the validity of our data. A 1/100 dilution was prepared from each strain of 4 different species to estimate aflatoxins in samples of contaminated corn. Both chemical and biological assays were carried out at the same time. Data revealed that the most sensitive organism inhibited by as low as 7.5μg aflatoxins/mL wasB megaterium giving an inhibition zone of 10.5 mm, followed byS epidermidis with an inhibition zone of 7.5mm. In relation, the other 2 organisms were less sensitive to crude aflatoxins. Similarly, the biological assay was applied to detect aflatoxins in some samples of wheat, corn, peanut, rice, and poultry rations. Of the 14 wheat and 10 corn samples, only 4 wheat and 2 corn samples were found to be positive. The same results were obtained using TLC analysis.