Genetic variation in Plethodon cinereus and Plethodon hubrichti from in and around a contact zone

Climate change poses several challenges to biological communities including changes in the frequency of encounters between closely related congeners as a result of range shifts. When climate change leads to increased hybridization, hybrid dysfunction or genetic swamping may increase extinction risk—particularly in range‐restricted species with low vagility. The Peaks of Otter Salamander, Plethodon hubrichti, is a fully terrestrial woodland salamander that is restricted to ~18 km of ridgeline in the mountains of southwestern Virginia, and its range is surrounded by the abundant and widespread Eastern Red‐backed Salamander, Plethodon cinereus. In order to determine whether these two species are hybridizing and how their range limits may be shifting, we assessed variation at eight microsatellite loci and a 1,008 bp region of Cytochrome B in both species at allopatric reference sites and within a contact zone. Our results show that hybridization between P. hubrichti and P. cinereus either does not occur or is very rare. However, we find that diversity and differentiation are substantially higher in the mountaintop endemic P. hubrichti than in the widespread P. cinereus, despite similar movement ability for the two species as assessed by a homing experiment. Furthermore, estimation of divergence times between reference and contact zone populations via approximate Bayesian computation is consistent with the idea that P. cinereus has expanded into the range of P. hubrichti. Given the apparent recent colonization of the contact zone by P. cinereus, future monitoring of P. cinereus range limits should be a priority for the management of P. hubrichti populations.     

PRP gene variability in the us cattle population

Abstract

The primary amino acid sequence of the prion protein (PrP) has previously been correlated with changes in the incubation period of subacute spongiform encephalopathies. We have analyzed the PrP gene from 65 different cattle representing 14 breeds by polymerase chain reaction and restriction enzyme analysis. Two distinct PrP alleles differing in the number of octapeptide repeats are present. The predominant genotype is homozygous for 6 octapeptide repeats. Few individuals (8) were found to be heterozygous for these repeats and only 1 animal was homozygous for the 5 octapeptide repeat allele.     

Age-Specific Mortality During the 1918 Influenza Pandemic: Unravelling the Mystery of High Young Adult Mortality

The worldwide spread of a novel influenza A (H1N1) virus in 2009 showed that influenza remains a significant health threat, even for individuals in the prime of life. This paper focuses on the unusually high young adult mortality observed during the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918. Using historical records from Canada and the U.S., we report a peak of mortality at the exact age of 28 during the pandemic and argue that this increased mortality resulted from an early life exposure to influenza during the previous Russian flu pandemic of 1889–90. We posit that in specific instances, development of immunological memory to an influenza virus strain in early life may lead to a dysregulated immune response to antigenically novel strains encountered in later life, thereby increasing the risk of death. Exposure during critical periods of development could also create holes in the T cell repertoire and impair fetal maturation in general, thereby increasing mortality from infectious diseases later in life. Knowledge of the age-pattern of susceptibility to mortality from influenza could improve crisis management during future influenza pandemics.

“The war is over – and I must go” Egon Schiele, 1890–1918.

     

Likely future extirpation of another Asian river dolphin: The critically endangered population of the Irrawaddy dolphin in the Mekong River is small and declining

The population of Irrawaddy dolphins that occupies the Mekong River in southern Lao People's Democratic Republic and Cambodia is classified as Critically Endangered by the IUCN. Based on capture‐recapture of photo‐identified individuals, we estimated that the total population numbered 93 ±  SE 3.90 individuals (95% CI 86–101), as of April 2007. The combined photo‐identification and carcass recovery program undertaken from 2001 to 2007 established that the Irrawaddy dolphin population inhabiting the Mekong River has reached a critical point with regards to its continued survival, where immediate research and management actions are required to greatly reduce adult mortality, and establish the cause of newborn mortality. In addition, community consultation is required to initiate, and evaluate, urgently required conservation measures. An ongoing well‐designed combined program of abundance estimation (i.e., photo‐identification) and carcass recovery is required to monitor total population size and mortality rates, to inform and evaluate management initiatives. The conclusions of this paper are likely generic to river dolphin populations, particularly where photo‐identification is possible.     

Estimating the rotation rate in the vacuolar proton-ATPase in native yeast vacuolar membranes

The rate of rotation of the rotor in the yeast vacuolar proton-ATPase (V-ATPase), relative to the stator or steady parts of the enzyme, is estimated in native vacuolar membrane vesicles from Saccharomyces cerevisiae under standardised conditions. Membrane vesicles are formed spontaneously after exposing purified yeast vacuoles to osmotic shock. The fraction of total ATPase activity originating from the V-ATPase is determined by using the potent and specific inhibitor of the enzyme, concanamycin A. Inorganic phosphate liberated from ATP in the vacuolar membrane vesicle system, during ten min of ATPase activity at 20 °C, is assayed spectrophotometrically for different concanamycin A concentrations. A fit of the quadratic binding equation, assuming a single concanamycin A binding site on a monomeric V-ATPase (our data are incompatible with models assuming multiple binding sites), to the inhibitor titration curve determines the concentration of the enzyme. Combining this with the known ATP/rotation stoichiometry of the V-ATPase and the assayed concentration of inorganic phosphate liberated by the V-ATPase, leads to an average rate of ~10 Hz for full 360° rotation (and a range of 6–32 Hz, considering the ± standard deviation of the enzyme concentration), which, from the time-dependence of the activity, extrapolates to ~14 Hz (8–48 Hz) at the beginning of the reaction. These are lower-limit estimates. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the rotation rate in a V-ATPase that is not subjected to genetic or chemical modification and is not fixed to a solid support; instead it is functioning in its native membrane environment.     

Antibodies to Polymorphic Invasion-Inhibitory and Non-Inhibitory Epitopes of Plasmodium falciparum Apical Membrane Antigen 1 in Human Malaria

Background

Antibodies to P. falciparum apical membrane protein 1 (AMA1) may contribute to protective immunity against clinical malaria by inhibiting blood stage growth of P. falciparum, and AMA1 is a leading malaria vaccine candidate. Currently, there is limited knowledge of the acquisition of strain-specific and cross-reactive antibodies to AMA1 in humans, or the acquisition of invasion-inhibitory antibodies to AMA1.

Methodology/Findings

We examined the acquisition of human antibodies to specific polymorphic invasion-inhibitory and non-inhibitory AMA1 epitopes, defined by the monoclonal antibodies 1F9 and 2C5, respectively. Naturally acquired antibodies were measured in cohorts of Kenyan children and adults. Antibodies to the invasion-inhibitory 1F9 epitope and non-inhibitory 2C5 epitope were measured indirectly by competition ELISA. Antibodies to the 1F9 and 2C5 epitopes were acquired by children and correlated with exposure, and higher antibody levels and prevalence were observed with increasing age and with active P. falciparum infection. Of note, the prevalence of antibodies to the inhibitory 1F9 epitope was lower than antibodies to AMA1 or the 2C5 epitope. Antibodies to AMA1 ectodomain, the 1F9 or 2C5 epitopes, or a combination of responses, showed some association with protection from P. falciparum malaria in a prospective longitudinal study. Furthermore, antibodies to the invasion-inhibitory 1F9 epitope were positively correlated with parasite growth-inhibitory activity of serum antibodies.

Conclusions/Significance

Individuals acquire antibodies to functional, polymorphic epitopes of AMA1 that may contribute to protective immunity, and these findings have implications for AMA1 vaccine development. Measuring antibodies to the 1F9 epitope by competition ELISA may be a valuable approach to assessing human antibodies with invasion-inhibitory activity in studies of acquired immunity and vaccine trials of AMA1.     

Nutritional Deficiencies,the Absence of Information and Caregiver Shortcomings: A Qualitative Analysis of Infant Feeding Practices in Rural China

MethodologyWe interviewed sixty caregivers participating in a large survey on child health and nutrition. We conducted three waves of interviews with children’s primary caregivers in seventeen rural villages within four nationally-designated poverty counties in the southern part of Shaanxi Province.ResultsThe qualitative analysis reveals that poor complementary feeding practices are common across our sample. Information gathered from our interviews suggests that complementary feeding practices are impeded by two constraints: absence of understanding topics related to infant health and nutrition under caregivers, as well as inadequate sources of information on these topics. Poverty does not appear to constrain child feeding practices.ConclusionOur results uncover lack of proper knowledge on infant and child nutrition among rural caregivers in China. This situation causes them to fail incorporating micronutrient rich foods in their children''s diet. Age-appropriate complementary feeding can stimulate children’s physical and cognitive development, but in its absence it leads to iron-deficiency anemia. We suggest that steps be taken to educate caregivers to improve complementary feeding of their infants and children.     

Can Community Health Workers Report Accurately on Births and Deaths? Results of Field Assessments in Ethiopia,Malawi and Mali

Introduction

Most low-income countries lack complete and accurate vital registration systems. As a result, measures of under-five mortality rates rely mostly on household surveys. In collaboration with partners in Ethiopia, Ghana, Malawi, and Mali, we assessed the completeness and accuracy of reporting of births and deaths by community-based health workers, and the accuracy of annualized under-five mortality rate estimates derived from these data. Here we report on results from Ethiopia, Malawi and Mali.

Method

In all three countries, community health workers (CHWs) were trained, equipped and supported to report pregnancies, births and deaths within defined geographic areas over a period of at least fifteen months. In-country institutions collected these data every month. At each study site, we administered a full birth history (FBH) or full pregnancy history (FPH), to women of reproductive age via a census of households in Mali and via household surveys in Ethiopia and Malawi. Using these FBHs/FPHs as a validation data source, we assessed the completeness of the counts of births and deaths and the accuracy of under-five, infant, and neonatal mortality rates from the community-based method against the retrospective FBH/FPH for rolling twelve-month periods. For each method we calculated total cost, average annual cost per 1,000 population, and average cost per vital event reported.

Results

On average, CHWs submitted monthly vital event reports for over 95 percent of catchment areas in Ethiopia and Malawi, and for 100 percent of catchment areas in Mali. The completeness of vital events reporting by CHWs varied: we estimated that 30%-90% of annualized expected births (i.e. the number of births estimated using a FPH) were documented by CHWs and 22%-91% of annualized expected under-five deaths were documented by CHWs. Resulting annualized under-five mortality rates based on the CHW vital events reporting were, on average, under-estimated by 28% in Ethiopia, 32% in Malawi, and 9% in Mali relative to comparable FPHs. Costs per vital event reported ranged from $21 in Malawi to $149 in Mali.

Discussion

Our findings in Mali suggest that CHWs can collect complete and high-quality vital events data useful for monitoring annual changes in under-five mortality rates. Both the supervision of CHWs in Mali and the rigor of the associated field-based data quality checks were of a high standard, and the size of the pilot area in Mali was small (comprising of approximately 53,205 residents in 4,200 households). Hence, there are remaining questions about whether this level of vital events reporting completeness and data quality could be maintained if the approach was implemented at scale. Our experience in Malawi and Ethiopia suggests that, in some settings, establishing and maintaining the completeness and quality of vital events reporting by CHWs over time is challenging. In this sense, our evaluation in Mali falls closer to that of an efficacy study, whereas our evaluations in Ethiopia and Malawi are more akin to an effectiveness study. Our overall findings suggest that no one-size-fits-all approach will be successful in guaranteeing complete and accurate reporting of vital events by CHWs.