The Hemagglutinin of Bat-Associated Influenza Viruses Is Activated by TMPRSS2 for pH-Dependent Entry into Bat but Not Human Cells

New World bats have recently been discovered to harbor influenza A virus (FLUAV)-related viruses, termed bat-associated influenza A-like viruses (batFLUAV). The internal proteins of batFLUAV are functional in mammalian cells. In contrast, no biological functionality could be demonstrated for the surface proteins, hemagglutinin (HA)-like (HAL) and neuraminidase (NA)-like (NAL), and these proteins need to be replaced by their human counterparts to allow spread of batFLUAV in human cells. Here, we employed rhabdoviral vectors to study the role of HAL and NAL in viral entry. Vectors pseudotyped with batFLUAV-HAL and -NAL were able to enter bat cells but not cells from other mammalian species. Host cell entry was mediated by HAL and was dependent on prior proteolytic activation of HAL and endosomal low pH. In contrast, sialic acids were dispensable for HAL-driven entry. Finally, the type II transmembrane serine protease TMPRSS2 was able to activate HAL for cell entry indicating that batFLUAV can utilize human proteases for HAL activation. Collectively, these results identify viral and cellular factors governing host cell entry driven by batFLUAV surface proteins. They suggest that the absence of a functional receptor precludes entry of batFLUAV into human cells while other prerequisites for entry, HAL activation and protonation, are met in target cells of human origin.     

The organization and structure of nerve and muscle in the jellyfish Cyanea capillata (coelenterata; scyphozoa)

The perirhopalial tissue and swimming muscle of Cyanea were examined with light microscopical and electron microscopical techniques. The perirhopalial tissue is a thin, triangular septum found on the subumbrellar surface of the animal. It separates part of the gastric canal system from the surrounding seawater, and is bound on two sides by radial muscle bands and on the third, the shorter side, by a rhopalium and the margin of the bell. The ectoderm of the perirhopalial tissue is composed of large, somewhat cuboidal, vacuolated, myoepithelial cells. The muscle tails of these cells form a single layer of radial, smooth muscle. Neurons of the “giant fiber nerve net” (GFNN), which form an extensive net over the perirhopalial tissue, lie at the base of the vacuolated portion of the myoepithelial cells. These neurons are visible in living tissue. The morphology of individual GFNN neurons was examined following intracellular injection of the fluorescent dye Lucifer Yellow. The neurons are usually bipolar and free of branches. At the electron microscope level, one usually finds that the GFNN neurons contain large vacuoles. The other characteristic feature of these cells is that they form symmetrical, or nonpolarized, synapses; that is, synaptic vesicles are found on both sides of the synapse. The swimming muscle is striated and composed of myoepithelial cells. Each myoepithelial cell has several muscle tails, and those of adjacent cells are linked to gether by desmosomes. The endoderm of the perirhopalial tissue also was examined. This investigation of the organization and ultrastructure of the perirhopalial tissue and surrounding muscle was undertaken to provide essential background information for an ongoing physiological study of the GFNN neurons and their synapses.     

The evolution of primate communities and societies in Madagascar

During their 120 to 165 million years of isolation, the flora and fauna of Madagascar evolved, to a large extent, independently of the African mainland.¹ In contrast to other oceanic islands, Madagascar is large enough to house the major components of tropical ecosystems, allowing tests of evolutionary hypotheses on the level of complete communities. Taking lemurs, the primates of Madagascar, as an example, evolutionary hypotheses correctly predict the organization of their community structure with respect to ecological correlates. Lemur social systems and their morphological correlates, on the other hand, deviate in some respects from those of other primates. Apparently, lemur social systems are influenced by several selection pressures that are weak or rare in other primates. These include variable activity patterns and avoidance of infanticide. The interspecific variation in lemur social systems therefore offers a unique opportunity for a comprehensive study of the determinants of primate social systems.     

A portable,adjustable finger printing stand

A lightweight finger printing stand is described which can be adjusted to the proper printing height. Based upon experience printing over 1,100 subjects, 12 advantages of using the stand are suggested.     

A familial mutation in the testis-determining gene SRY shared by both sexes

A familial mutation in SRY, the gene coding for the testis-determining factor TDF, was identified in an XY female with gonadal dysgenesis, her father, her two brothers and her uncle. The mutation consists of a T to C transition in the region of the SRY gene coding for a protein motif known as the high mobility group (HMG) box, a protein domain known to confer DNA-binding specificity on the SRY protein. This point mutation results in the substitution, at amino acid position 109, of a serine residue for phenylalanine, a conserved aromatic residue in almost all HMG box motifs known. This F109S mutation was not found in 176 male controls. When recombinant wildtype SRY and SRY^F109S mutant protein were tested in vitro for binding to the target site AAC AAAG, no differences in DNA-binding activity were observed. These results imply that the F109S mutation either is a rare neutral sequence variant, or produces an SRY protein with slightly altered in vivo activity, the resulting sex phenotype depending on the genetic back-ground or environmental factors.This paper is dedicated by G. S. to Professor Ulrich Wolf on the occasion of his 60th birthday     

Snapshot prediction of carbon productivity,carbon and protein content in a Southern Ocean diatom using FTIR spectroscopy

Diatoms, an important group of phytoplankton, bloom annually in the Southern Ocean, covering thousands of square kilometers and dominating the region''s phytoplankton communities. In their role as the major food source to marine grazers, diatoms supply carbon, nutrients and energy to the Southern Ocean food web. Prevailing environmental conditions influence diatom phenotypic traits (for example, photophysiology, macromolecular composition and morphology), which in turn affect the transfer of energy, carbon and nutrients to grazers and higher trophic levels, as well as oceanic biogeochemical cycles. The paucity of phenotypic data on Southern Ocean phytoplankton limits our understanding of the ecosystem and how it may respond to future environmental change. Here we used a novel approach to create a ‘snapshot'' of cell phenotype. Using mass spectrometry, we measured nitrogen (a proxy for protein), total carbon and carbon-13 enrichment (carbon productivity), then used this data to build spectroscopy-based predictive models. The models were used to provide phenotypic data for samples from a third sample set. Importantly, this approach enabled the first ever rate determination of carbon productivity from a single time point, circumventing the need for time-series measurements. This study showed that Chaetoceros simplex was less productive and had lower protein and carbon content during short-term periods of high salinity. Applying this new phenomics approach to natural phytoplankton samples could provide valuable insight into understanding phytoplankton productivity and function in the marine system.     

Statistical Mechanics of Zooplankton

Statistical mechanics provides the link between microscopic properties of many-particle systems and macroscopic properties such as pressure and temperature. Observations of similar “microscopic” quantities exist for the motion of zooplankton, as well as many species of other social animals. Herein, we propose to take average squared velocities as the definition of the “ecological temperature” of a population under different conditions on nutrients, light, oxygen and others. We test the usefulness of this definition on observations of the crustacean zooplankton Daphnia pulicaria. In one set of experiments, D. pulicaria is infested with the pathogen Vibrio cholerae, the causative agent of cholera. We find that infested D. pulicaria under light exposure have a significantly greater ecological temperature, which puts them at a greater risk of detection by visual predators. In a second set of experiments, we observe D. pulicaria in cold and warm water, and in darkness and under light exposure. Overall, our ecological temperature is a good discriminator of the crustacean’s swimming behavior.