Recombinant cathepsin E has no proteolytic activity at neutral pH

Cathepsin E (CatE) is a major intracellular aspartic protease reported to be involved in cellular protein degradation and several pathological processes. Distinct cleavage specificities of CatE at neutral and acidic pH have been reported previously in studies using CatE purified from human gastric mucosa. Here, in contrast, we have analyzed the proteolytic activity of recombinant CatE at acidic and neutral pH using two separate approaches, RP-HPLC and FRET-based proteinase assays. Our data clearly indicate that recombinant CatE does not possess any proteolytic activity at all at neutral pH and was unable to cleave the peptides glucagon, neurotensin, and dynorphin A that were previously reported to be cleaved by CatE at neutral pH. Even in the presence of ATP, which is known to stabilize CatE, no proteolytic activity was observed. These discrepant results might be due to some contaminating factor present in the enzyme preparations used in previous studies or may reflect differences between recombinant CatE and the native enzyme.     

The Arabidopsis mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase MKK3 is upstream of group C mitogen-activated protein kinases and participates in pathogen signaling

Although the Arabidopsis thaliana genome contains genes encoding 20 mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and 10 MAPK kinases (MAPKKs), most of them are still functionally uncharacterized. In this work, we analyzed the function of the group B MAPK kinase, MKK3. Transgenic ProMKK3:GUS lines showed basal expression in vascular tissues that was strongly induced by Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato strain DC3000 (Pst DC3000) infection but not by abiotic stresses. The growth of virulent Pst DC3000 was increased in mkk3 knockout plants and decreased in MKK3-overexpressing plants. Moreover, MKK3 overexpression lines showed increased expression of several PR genes. By yeast two-hybrid analysis, coimmunoprecipitation, and protein kinase assays, MKK3 was revealed to be an upstream activator of the group C MAPKs MPK1, MPK2, MPK7, and MPK14. Flagellin-derived flg22 peptide strongly activated MPK6 but resulted in poor activation of MPK7. By contrast, MPK6 and MPK7 were both activated by H(2)O(2), but only MPK7 activation was enhanced by MKK3. In agreement with the notion that MKK3 regulates the expression of PR genes, ProPR1:GUS expression was strongly enhanced by coexpression of MKK3-MPK7. Our results reveal that the MKK3 pathway plays a role in pathogen defense and further underscore the importance and complexity of MAPK signaling in plant stress responses.     

Drug export pathway of multidrug exporter AcrB revealed by DARPin inhibitors

The multidrug exporter AcrB is the inner membrane component of the AcrAB-TolC drug efflux system in Escherichia coli and is responsible for the resistance of this organism to a wide range of drugs. Here we describe the crystal structure of the trimeric AcrB in complex with a designed ankyrin-repeat protein (DARPin) inhibitor at 2.5-Å resolution. The three subunits of AcrB are locked in different conformations revealing distinct channels in each subunit. There seems to be remote conformational coupling between the channel access, exit, and the putative proton-translocation site, explaining how the proton motive force is used for drug export. Thus our structure suggests a transport pathway not through the central pore but through the identified channels in the individual subunits, which greatly advances our understanding of the multidrug export mechanism.     

Helix packing moments reveal diversity and conservation in membrane protein structure

Helical membrane proteins are more tightly packed and the packing interactions are more diverse than those found in helical soluble proteins. Based on a linear correlation between amino acid packing values and interhelical propensity, we propose the concept of a helix packing moment to predict the orientation of helices in helical membrane proteins and membrane protein complexes. We show that the helix packing moment correlates with the helix interfaces of helix dimers of single pass membrane proteins of known structure. Helix packing moments are also shown to help identify the packing interfaces in membrane proteins with multiple transmembrane helices, where a single helix can have multiple contact surfaces. Analyses are described on class A G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) with seven transmembrane helices. We show that the helix packing moments are conserved across the class A family of GPCRs and correspond to key structural contacts in rhodopsin. These contacts are distinct from the highly conserved signature motifs of GPCRs and have not previously been recognized. The specific amino acid types involved in these contacts, however, are not necessarily conserved between subfamilies of GPCRs, indicating that the same protein architecture can be supported by a diverse set of interactions. In GPCRs, as well as membrane channels and transporters, amino acid residues with small side-chains (Gly, Ala, Ser, Cys) allow tight helix packing by mediating strong van der Waals interactions between helices. Closely packed helices, in turn, facilitate interhelical hydrogen bonding of both weakly polar (Ser, Thr, Cys) and strongly polar (Asn, Gln, Glu, Asp, His, Arg, Lys) amino acid residues. We propose the use of the helix packing moment as a complementary tool to the helical hydrophobic moment in the analysis of transmembrane sequences.     

PTIP associates with MLL3- and MLL4-containing histone H3 lysine 4 methyltransferase complex

PTIP, a protein with tandem BRCT domains, has been implicated in DNA damage response. However, its normal cellular functions remain unclear. Here we show that while ectopically expressed PTIP is capable of interacting with DNA damage response proteins including 53BP1, endogenous PTIP, and a novel protein PA1 are both components of a Set1-like histone methyltransferase (HMT) complex that also contains ASH2L, RBBP5, WDR5, hDPY-30, NCOA6, SET domain-containing HMTs MLL3 and MLL4, and substoichiometric amount of JmjC domain-containing putative histone demethylase UTX. PTIP complex carries robust HMT activity and specifically methylates lysine 4 (K4) on histone H3. Furthermore, PA1 binds PTIP directly and requires PTIP for interaction with the rest of the complex. Moreover, we show that hDPY-30 binds ASH2L directly. The evolutionarily conserved hDPY-30, ASH2L, RBBP5, and WDR5 likely constitute a subcomplex that is shared by all human Set1-like HMT complexes. In contrast, PTIP, PA1, and UTX specifically associate with the PTIP complex. Thus, in cells without DNA damage agent treatment, the endogenous PTIP associates with a Set1-like HMT complex of unique subunit composition. As histone H3 K4 methylation associates with active genes, our study suggests a potential role of PTIP in the regulation of gene expression.     

Proteasome activity imaging and profiling characterizes bacterial effector syringolin A

Syringolin A (SylA) is a nonribosomal cyclic peptide produced by the bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv syringae that can inhibit the eukaryotic proteasome. The proteasome is a multisubunit proteolytic complex that resides in the nucleus and cytoplasm and contains three subunits with different catalytic activities: β1, β2, and β5. Here, we studied how SylA targets the plant proteasome in living cells using activity-based profiling and imaging. We further developed this technology by introducing new, more selective probes and establishing procedures of noninvasive imaging in living Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) cells. These studies showed that SylA preferentially targets β2 and β5 of the plant proteasome in vitro and in vivo. Structure-activity analysis revealed that the dipeptide tail of SylA contributes to β2 specificity and identified a nonreactive SylA derivative that proved essential for imaging experiments. Interestingly, subcellular imaging with probes based on epoxomicin and SylA showed that SylA accumulates in the nucleus of the plant cell and suggests that SylA targets the nuclear proteasome. Furthermore, subcellular fractionation studies showed that SylA labels nuclear and cytoplasmic proteasomes. The selectivity of SylA for the catalytic subunits and subcellular compartments is discussed, and the subunit selectivity is explained by crystallographic data.     

The structure of a native l-amino acid oxidase, the major component of the Vipera ammodytes ammodytes venomic, reveals dynamic active site and quaternary structure stabilization by divalent ions

The crystal structure of the major component of the Vipera ammodytes ammodytes venomic, a flavotoxin, member of the l-amino acid oxidase (LAAO) family, has been determined and refined at 2.6 ? resolution. The asymmetric unit consists of four molecules, each bound to oxidized FAD, representing a dimer of dimers. The binding of four Zn(2+) ions stabilizes the enzymatically active quaternary structure and is considered important for the biological activity of LAAO and other flavoproteins. Each monomer consists of three domains with a cofactor bound between the FAD and substrate binding domains, and a solvent exposed glycosylation site which is considered crucial for the toxicity. Comparison of LAAO structures in the absence and presence of a substrate indicates conformational changes in the dynamic active site. The active site H-bond network involving the triad Lys326-Water-N5 of FAD is formed only upon substrate binding, and results in the increased mobility of the isoalloxazine system. Details of the catalytic transformation of amino acid substrates are discussed.