The alternative sigma factor sigma is required for resistance of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium to anti-microbial peptides

The enteric pathogen Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) encounters a variety of anti-microbial peptides during the course of infection. We report here that the extracytoplasmic sigma factor sigma(E) (RpoE) is required for Salmonella resistance to killing by the bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein (BPI)-derived peptide P2 and the murine alpha-defensin cryptdin-4 (Crp4). Moreover, sigma(E)-deficient S. Typhimurium is attenuated for virulence after oral infection of immunocompromised gp91phox(-/-) mice that lack a functional NADPH phagocyte oxidase, suggesting that sigma(E) plays an important role in resistance to non-oxidative mucosal host defences such as anti-microbial peptides. Although both P2 and Crp4 target the cell envelope, bacterial killing by these peptides appears to occur by distinct mechanisms. Formate enhances bacterial resistance to P2, as previously demonstrated, but not to Crp4. Both sigma(E) and cytoplasmic membrane-associated formate dehydrogenase are required for the protective effect of formate against P2. In contrast to P2, Crp4 does not inhibit bacterial respiration at lethal concentrations. However, both peptides induce expression of rpoE, suggesting that they trigger a common mechanism for sensing extracytoplasmic stress.     

Compensatory role of PspA, a member of the phage shock protein operon, in rpoE mutant Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium

Sigma(E) is an alternative sigma factor that responds to and ameliorates extracytoplasmic stress. In Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium), sigma(E) is required for oxidative stress resistance, stationary-phase survival and virulence in mice. Microarray analysis of stationary-phase gene expression in rpoE mutant bacteria revealed a dramatic increase in expression of pspA, a member of the phage shock protein (psp) operon. The psp operon can be induced by filamentous bacteriophages or by perturbations of protein secretion, and is believed to facilitate the maintenance of proton motive force (PMF). We hypothesized that increased pspA expression may represent a compensatory response to the loss of sigma(E) function. Increased pspA expression was confirmed in rpoE mutant Salmonella and also observed in a mutant lacking the F(1)F(0) ATPase. Alternatively, expression of pspA could be induced by exposure to CCCP, a protonophore that disrupts PMF. An rpoE pspA double mutant strain was found to have a stationary-phase survival defect more pronounced than that of isogenic strains harbouring single mutations. The double mutant strains were also more susceptible to killing by CCCP or by a bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein (BPI)-derived anti-microbial peptide. Using fluorescence ratio imaging, differences were observed in the Deltapsi of wild-type and rpoE or pspA mutant bacteria. These findings suggest that pspA expression in S. Typhimurium is induced by alterations in PMF and a functional sigma(E) regulon is essential for the maintenance of PMF.     

Extrathymic hemopoietic progenitors committed to T cell differentiation in the adult mouse

The role of the thymus in T cell commitment of hemopoietic precursor is yet controversial. We previously identified a major T cell progenitor activity in precursor cells isolated from bone marrow-derived spleen colonies. In this study, we characterize the properties of these pre-T cells. We demonstrate that they have unique phenotype and can be generated in a total absence of any thymic influence. Indeed, even when studied at the single-cell level, extrathymic T cell-committed precursors express T cell-specific genes. Moreover, these cells are not committed to a particular T cell differentiation pathway because they can generate both extrathymic CD8alphaalpha+ intraepithelial lymphocytes and thymus-derived conventional thymocytes. We also compared these pre-T cells with fully T cell-committed thymic progenitors. When tested in vitro or by direct intrathymic transfer, these cells have a low clonogenic activity. However, after i.v. transfer, thymus repopulation is efficient and these precursors generate very high numbers of peripheral T cells. These results suggest the existence of extra steps of pre-T cell maturation that improve thymus reconstitution capacity and that can be delivered even after full T cell commitment. Consequently, our studies identify a source of extrathymic progenitors that will be helpful in defining the role of the thymus in the earliest steps of T cell differentiation.     

Specific fluorescent tracers. Imaging and applications for photodynamic therapy

Our main objective is to enlarge the fluorescence use in biosciences, with especially the photodynamic therapy (PDT) used for cancer treatment as one of the target applications. Meta-tetra(hydroxyphenyl)chlorin (m-THPC) is a second-generation photosensitiser, applied in photodynamic therapy. The localisation of this sensitiser as well as its induced cell death mechanisms in human breast cancer cells (MCF-7 and its resistant subline MCF-7DXR, DXR: doxorubicin) were evaluated using fluorescence microscopy. In addition, we will present two additional routes, whose aims are to create new features to respond to the PDT questioning: firstly, the synthesis of fluorescent tracers, with a particular attention to the presence of hydrophilic groups (glucosamine ring) on the basic fluorophore structure to orientate the localisation of the probe and, secondly, the use of scanning near-field optical microscopy to reach a better resolution for the fluorescence microscopy analysis.     

Questioning the Reliability of the Point Intercept Method for Assessing Community Functional Structure in Low-Productive and Highly Diverse Mediterranean Grasslands

Quantifying species relative abundances in plant communities remains a key issue for the assessment of community functional structure. This is particularly challenging when non-destructive estimates are required over time. We tested whether the point intercept method (PIM), originally developed for low-diverse communities, is relevant for assessing the aboveground biomass and functional structure of highly diverse, low-productive Mediterranean grasslands. We sampled 18 communities with the PIM along a gradient of soil depth and texture, twice over the growing season. After each sampling period, we harvested the aboveground biomass in order to measure species biomass and to assess species richness and community functional structure with plant height, leaf area and leaf dry matter content (LDMC). We investigated the relationship between point intercept measurements and aboveground biomass at three hierarchical levels (species, growth-form and community) to find generalizable calibration equations for estimating community biomass and tested for sensitivity of estimates to community structure. We then compared the community weighted mean (CWM) and variance (CWV) of LDMC, calculated with and without calibration. Differences in species growth strategy and phenology strongly impacted biomass estimates at both the species and the community level. These differences were, however, successfully accounted for by growth-form specific calibrations, which provided accurate estimates without any influence of community structure. Lack of calibration may have dramatic consequences on functional structure assessment by inducing errors in estimates of CWV up to 80 %, depending on growth-form proportions. This work contributes to a better understanding of the possible methodological biases induced during sampling with the PIM, when quantifying species relative abundances for functional structure assessment in complex communities.     

Polymorphism in Gag gene cleavage sites of HIV-1 non-B subtype and virological outcome of a first-line lopinavir/ritonavir single drug regimen

Virological failure on a boosted-protease inhibitor (PI/r) first-line triple combination is usually not associated with the detection of resistance mutations in the protease gene. Thus, other resistance pathways are being investigated. First-line PI/r monotherapy is the best model to investigate in vivo if the presence of mutations in the cleavage sites (CS) of gag gene prior to any antiretroviral treatment might influence PI/r efficacy. 83 patients were assigned to initiate antiretroviral treatment with first-line lopinavir/r monotherapy in the randomised Monark trial. We compared baseline sequence of gag CS between patients harbouring B or non-B HIV-1 subtype, and between those who achieved viral suppression and those who experienced virological failure while on LPV/r monotherapy up to Week 96. Baseline sequence of gag CS was available for 82/83 isolates; 81/82 carried at least one substitution in gag CS compared to HXB2 sequence. At baseline, non-B subtype isolates were significantly more likely to harbour mutations in gag CS than B subtype isolates (p<0.0001). Twenty-three patients experienced virological failure while on lopinavir/r monotherapy. The presence of more than two substitutions in p2/NC site at baseline significantly predicted virological failure (p = 0.0479), non-B subtype isolates being more likely to harbour more than two substitutions in this specific site. In conclusion, gag cleavage site was highly polymorphic in antiretroviral-naive patients harbouring a non-B HIV-1 strain. We show that pre-therapy mutations in gag cleavage site sequence were significantly associated with the virological outcome of a first-line LPV/r single drug regimen in the Monark trial.