Novel loci for adiponectin levels and their influence on type 2 diabetes and metabolic traits: a multi-ethnic meta-analysis of 45,891 individuals

Circulating levels of adiponectin, a hormone produced predominantly by adipocytes, are highly heritable and are inversely associated with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) and other metabolic traits. We conducted a meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies in 39,883 individuals of European ancestry to identify genes associated with metabolic disease. We identified 8 novel loci associated with adiponectin levels and confirmed 2 previously reported loci (P = 4.5×10⁻⁸–1.2×10⁻⁴³). Using a novel method to combine data across ethnicities (N = 4,232 African Americans, N = 1,776 Asians, and N = 29,347 Europeans), we identified two additional novel loci. Expression analyses of 436 human adipocyte samples revealed that mRNA levels of 18 genes at candidate regions were associated with adiponectin concentrations after accounting for multiple testing (p<3×10⁻⁴). We next developed a multi-SNP genotypic risk score to test the association of adiponectin decreasing risk alleles on metabolic traits and diseases using consortia-level meta-analytic data. This risk score was associated with increased risk of T2D (p = 4.3×10⁻³, n = 22,044), increased triglycerides (p = 2.6×10⁻¹⁴, n = 93,440), increased waist-to-hip ratio (p = 1.8×10⁻⁵, n = 77,167), increased glucose two hours post oral glucose tolerance testing (p = 4.4×10⁻³, n = 15,234), increased fasting insulin (p = 0.015, n = 48,238), but with lower in HDL-cholesterol concentrations (p = 4.5×10⁻¹³, n = 96,748) and decreased BMI (p = 1.4×10⁻⁴, n = 121,335). These findings identify novel genetic determinants of adiponectin levels, which, taken together, influence risk of T2D and markers of insulin resistance.     

The Diversity of Yellow-Related Proteins in Sand Flies (Diptera: Psychodidae)

Yellow-related proteins (YRPs) present in sand fly saliva act as affinity binders of bioamines, and help the fly to complete a bloodmeal by scavenging the physiological signals of damaged cells. They are also the main antigens in sand fly saliva and their recombinant form is used as a marker of host exposure to sand flies. Moreover, several salivary proteins and plasmids coding these proteins induce strong immune response in hosts bitten by sand flies and are being used to design protecting vaccines against Leishmania parasites. In this study, thirty two 3D models of different yellow-related proteins from thirteen sand fly species of two genera were constructed based on the known protein structure from Lutzomyia longipalpis. We also studied evolutionary relationships among species based on protein sequences as well as sequence and structural variability of their ligand-binding site. All of these 33 sand fly YRPs shared a similar structure, including a unique tunnel that connects the ligand-binding site with the solvent by two independent paths. However, intraspecific modifications found among these proteins affects the charges of the entrances to the tunnel, the length of the tunnel and its hydrophobicity. We suggest that these structural and sequential differences influence the ligand-binding abilities of these proteins and provide sand flies with a greater number of YRP paralogs with more nuanced answers to bioamines. All these characteristics allow us to better evaluate these proteins with respect to their potential use as part of anti-Leishmania vaccines or as an antigen to measure host exposure to sand flies.     

Photosynthesis is improved by exogenous calcium in heat-stressed tobacco plants

Effects of exogenous calcium chloride (CaCl₂) (20 mM) on photosynthetic gas exchange, photosystem II photochemistry, and the activities of antioxidant enzymes in tobacco plants under high temperature stress (43 °C for 2 h) were investigated. Heat stress resulted in a decrease in net photosynthetic rate (P_n), stomatal conductance as well as the apparent quantum yield (AQY) and carboxylation efficiency (CE) of photosynthesis. Heat stress also caused a decrease of the maximal photochemical efficiency of primary photochemistry (F_v/F_m). On the other hand, CaCl₂ application improved P_n, AQY, and CE as well as F_v/F_m under high temperature stress. Heat stress reduced the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), peroxidase (POD), whereas the activities of these enzymes either decreased less or increased in plants pretreated with CaCl₂; glutathione reductase (GR) activity increased under high temperature, and it increased more in plants pretreated with CaCl₂. There was an obvious accumulation of H₂O₂ and O₂⁻ under high temperature, but CaCl₂ application decreased the contents of H₂O₂ and O₂⁻ under heat stress conditions. Heat stress induced the level of heat shock protein 70 (HSP70), while CaCl₂ pretreatment enhanced it. These results suggested that photosynthesis was improved by CaCl₂ application in heat-stressed plants and such an improvement was associated with an improvement in stomatal conductance and the thermostability of oxygen-evolving complex (OEC), which might be due to less accumulation of reactive oxygen species.     

Multiple,concentration-dependent effects of sucrose,auxins and cytokinins in explant cultures of kale and tobacco

We describe complex multiple concentration dependencies for the response of isolated pith tissues to plant biologically active substances. Kale and tobacco stem pith explants were cultured on agar media containing combinations of sucrose, cytokinin [kinetin or benzyladenine (BA)] and auxin [indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) or naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA)]. Absorption of these components by explants and their effects on explant mass, contents of soluble proteins, starch and sugars, and activity of ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (AGPase) were studied in relation to their concentration. Up to ten pronounced statistically significant maxima (peaks or waves) were repeatedly detected in the dose–response curves over a concentration range of several logarithmic orders. Slight maxima were observed in the corresponding absorption curves. Pronounced maxima of sucrose absorption were induced by IAA and BA, and those of NAA absorption were induced by sucrose. Both types of multiple maxima (in dose–response and absorption curves) may be due to changes in concentration of intracellular solutes (sugars, auxins and cytokinins), thereby affecting metabolic processes that act as sinks for external solutes and elicit feedback appearance of maxima in absorption curves. Good correspondence between external concentrations at which maxima of different compared curves occur in addition to statistical significance of individual maxima and repeatability of experimental results supports the conclusion that the multiple maxima exhibited are genuine. We consider it possibile that the multiple maxima are associated with endopolyploidy or mixoploidy and/or epigenomic diversity of pith cells that show different sensitivities to biologically active solutes.     

Munc13-Like skMLCK Variants Cannot Mimic the Unique Calmodulin Binding Mode of Munc13 as Evidenced by Chemical Cross-Linking and Mass Spectrometry

Among the neuronal binding partners of calmodulin (CaM) are Munc13 proteins as essential presynaptic regulators that play a key role in synaptic vesicle priming and are crucial for presynaptic short-term plasticity. Recent NMR structural investigations of a CaM/Munc13-1 peptide complex have revealed an extended structure, which contrasts the compact structures of most classical CaM/target complexes. This unusual binding mode is thought to be related to the presence of an additional hydrophobic anchor residue at position 26 of the CaM binding motif of Munc13-1, resulting in a novel 1-5-8-26 motif. Here, we addressed the question whether the 1-5-8-26 CaM binding motif is a Munc13-related feature or whether it can be induced in other CaM targets by altering the motif''s core residues. For this purpose, we chose skeletal muscle myosin light chain kinase (skMLCK) with a classical 1-5-8-14 CaM binding motif and constructed three skMLCK peptide variants mimicking Munc13-1, in which the hydrophobic anchor amino acid at position 14 was moved to position 26. Chemical cross-linking between CaM and skMLCK peptide variants combined with high-resolution mass spectrometry yielded insights into the peptides'' binding modes. This structural comparison together with complementary binding data from surface plasmon resonance experiments revealed that skMLCK variants with an artificial 1-5-8-26 motif cannot mimic CaM binding of Munc13-1. Apparently, additional features apart from the spacing of the hydrophobic anchor residues are required to define the functional 1-5-8-26 motif of Munc13-1. We conclude that Munc13 proteins display a unique CaM binding behavior to fulfill their role as efficient presynaptic calcium sensors over broad range of Ca²⁺ concentrations.     

How do we get a perfect complement of digits?

A crucial issue in limb development is how a correct set of precisely shaped digits forms in the digital plate. This process relies on patterning across the anterior-posterior axis of the limb bud, which is under the control of Sonic hedgehog emanating from the zone of polarizing activity. Recently, Sonic hedgehog function in the limb bud has been shown to have a dual character controlling both growth and patterning of the digital field. This finding has prompted the proposal of new models of how these two functions are achieved, and this will be discussed in this review.