The Role of Zoos in Modern Society—A Comparison of Zoos' Reported Priorities and What Visitors Believe They Should Be

Modern zoos are required to fulfill a growing number of responsibilities including scientific research, wildlife conservation, public recreation, and education. With so many roles and responsibilities and limited funds, zoos have to prioritize their activities in relation to their own specified goals, objectives, and mission statements. Given their desire to nurture community relations and educational opportunities, it is important to determine the extent to which zoos are prioritizing their activities, according to visitors' expectations. This paper presents empirical research of a two staged mixed-methods investigation into zoo priorities from both zoos' and visitors' perspectives. The first stage involved an online questionnaire to which more than 190 zoos across 52 countries reported their priorities and activities. We then undertook in-depth case studies in nine institutions, enabling direct observation of each site within its context, including face-to-face visitor interviews. Our research contrasts the priority given to zoo activities from each perspective and indicates that educating visitors, including school children, is the highest priority activity from the zoos' perspective and that of their visitors. The findings also show that visitors place high value on learning about actions they can take to help conservation efforts. Some inconsistencies between zoos' and visitors' priorities were also evident, such as the different emphasis placed on viewing endemic species, and zoos being a place for people to relax and socialize. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

A network-based approach to identify substrate classes of bacterial glycosyltransferases

Background

Bacterial interactions with the environment- and/or host largely depend on the bacterial glycome. The specificities of a bacterial glycome are largely determined by glycosyltransferases (GTs), the enzymes involved in transferring sugar moieties from an activated donor to a specific substrate. Of these GTs their coding regions, but mainly also their substrate specificity are still largely unannotated as most sequence-based annotation flows suffer from the lack of characterized sequence motifs that can aid in the prediction of the substrate specificity.

Results

In this work, we developed an analysis flow that uses sequence-based strategies to predict novel GTs, but also exploits a network-based approach to infer the putative substrate classes of these predicted GTs. Our analysis flow was benchmarked with the well-documented GT-repertoire of Campylobacter jejuni NCTC 11168 and applied to the probiotic model Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG to expand our insights in the glycosylation potential of this bacterium. In L. rhamnosus GG we could predict 48 GTs of which eight were not previously reported. For at least 20 of these GTs a substrate relation was inferred.

Conclusions

We confirmed through experimental validation our prediction of WelI acting upstream of WelE in the biosynthesis of exopolysaccharides. We further hypothesize to have identified in L. rhamnosus GG the yet undiscovered genes involved in the biosynthesis of glucose-rich glycans and novel GTs involved in the glycosylation of proteins. Interestingly, we also predict GTs with well-known functions in peptidoglycan synthesis to also play a role in protein glycosylation.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1471-2164-15-349) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Efficacy of in-furrow zinc phosphide pellets for controlling rodent damage in no-till corn

Plagues of rodents in field crops have been a problem of human societies for centuries. These problems diminished with the onset of effective herbicides and clean farming practices in the 1960s, but there has been a resurgence of rodent irruptions in cropfields since the advent of conservation tillage systems. We examined the efficacy of in-furrow applications of 2% zinc phosphide (Zn₃P₂) pellets (27.5 kg ha⁻¹ [5 lb acre⁻¹]) at planting for the control of rodent damage in no-till corn. Three independent field studies were conducted in northeastern NE, southern IL, and southern IN. Vole populations in the most severely damaged fields (IL) ranged from 104 to 138 active colonies ha⁻¹. Zn₃P₂ reduced yield loss in the three study areas by 7–34%. Projected economic returns ranged from US$1044 to US$5360, based on representative 64-ha fields and a net profit of US$250 ha⁻¹. Benefit:cost ratios ranged from 1.1 to 5.6:1 and were directly related to vole population levels. To prevent rodent damage in no-till cornfields, we recommend an integrated pest management approach that incorporates the use of a combination of the following techniques: rodent population monitoring, economic thresholds, mowing, early pre-plant herbicides, broadcast whole-kernel corn, and in-furrow applications of Zn₃P₂ pellets.     

Reproduction in captive common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus)

Though sexual maturation may begin at around one year of age, first successful reproduction of the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) is likely to be later, and it is generally recommended that animals not be mated before 1.5 years of age. The average gestation period is estimated to be 143 to 144 days. A crown-rump length measurement taken by use of ultrasonography during the linear, rapid, prenatal growth phase (between approx. days 60 and 95) can be compared against standard growth curves to estimate delivery date to within 3 to 4 days, on average. Marmosets produce more young per delivery than does any other anthropoid primate, and have more variation in litter size. Many long-established colonies report that triplets are the most common litter size, and there is documented association between higher maternal body weight and higher ovulation numbers. Higher litter sizes generally do not generate higher numbers of viable young. Marmosets are unusual among primates in having a postpartum ovulation that typically results in conception and successful delivery; reported median inter-birth intervals range from 154 to 162 days. However, pregnancy losses are quite common; one study of a large breeding colony indicated 50 percent loss between conception and term delivery. The average life span for breeding females is around six years; the range of reported average lifetime number of litters for a breeding pair is 3.45 to 4.0. Our purpose is to provide an overview of reproduction in the common marmoset, including basic reproductive life history, lactation and weaning, social housing requirements, and common problems encountered in the captive breeding of this species. A brief comparison between marmoset and tamarin reproduction also will be provided.     

Are age-related impairments in change-in-support balance reactions dependent on the method of balance perturbation?

Rapid “change-in-support” (stepping or grasping) balance-recovery reactions play a critical role in preventing falls. Studies investigating age-related impairments in these reactions using differing perturbation methods have shown contradictory results. The discrepancies could be due to the different mechanical and sensory stimuli provided by the different perturbation methods, but could also be due to other confounding factors (e.g. differences in perturbation predictability). This study compared two commonly used perturbation methods: weight-drop cable-pulls (CPs) and motor-driven surface-translations (STs). For each perturbation method, effects of aging on the change-in-support reactions were established by comparing 10 young (22–28 years) and 30 older (64–79 years) adults, using large unpredictable multi-directional perturbations similar to those used in previous studies showing age-related differences. Age-related differences in the pattern and spatio-temporal features of the limb movements were examined for stepping and grasping reactions evoked by antero-posterior perturbation of stance, as well as stepping reactions evoked by lateral perturbations delivered while subjects walked “in-place”. Although age-group effects were almost always more pronounced for ST perturbations, the direction of the effect was always the same for both perturbation methods; hence, the perturbation-dependent differences in mechanical and sensory stimuli did not seem to be a critical factor. Perturbation waveform appeared to be a more important factor. For the perturbation methods used here, the ST perturbations were more destabilising than the CP perturbations (leading to a more rapid rise in perturbatory ankle-torque and greater centre-of-mass motion prior to the onset of the postural reaction), and were consequently more effective in revealing age-related deficiencies.     

Characteristics of the splenic suppressor cell--target cell interaction in experimental African trypanosomiasis

We have examined further the relationship between immunosuppression and suppressor cell activity in experimental African trypanosomiasis. In the present study we describe the nature of the interaction between splenic suppressor macrophages from Trypanosoma rhodesiense-infected C57BL/6 mice and target effector cells in the primary in vitro PFC response to SRBC. Suppressor cell potential was expressed only when cell-cell contact of a noncytolytic nature was established between infected spleen cells and normal splenic responder cells. Isolation of suppressor cells from responder cells by a cell-impermeable membrane completely abrogated suppression. Similarly, supernatant fluids from infected spleen cell cultures could not passively transfer suppression. Suppressor cells did not act via prostaglandin synthesis in that indomethacin failed to restore responsiveness to infected spleen cells or to passively suppressed normal cultures. Inhibition of DNA synthesis by irradiation of mitomycin C treatment did not block suppressor cell function, but suppressor cell effects were inhibited by exposure of infected spleen cells to silica particles or to heat treatment. We conclude that suppressor cell effects in experimental African trypanosomiasis are consistent with a suppressor macrophage acting via a noncytolytic cell-cell interaction with responder target cells.     

Genetics of resistance to the African trypanosomes. VI. Heredity of resistance and variable surface glycoprotein-specific immune responses

The question of genetic linkage of parasite-specific immune responses to resistance to infection in experimental African trypanosomiasis was addressed. For this purpose, major histocompatibility complex-compatible resistant and susceptible inbred mouse strains and their F1 hybrid, F2 hybrid, and backcross offspring were infected with Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense LouTat 1. Immunologic control of the first peak of parasitemia and survival times were the parameters measured. As we have reported previously (R. F. Levine and J. M. Mansfield, J. Immunol. 133:1564, 1984), B10.BR/SgSnJ mice are relatively resistant and controlled the growth of the infecting variant antigenic type (VAT) by mounting an antibody response to exposed epitopes of the variable surface glycoprotein (VSG). Fluctuating parasitemias resulting from sequential growth of different variable antigenic types occurred subsequently, and these mice died with a median survival time of 48 days. C3HeB/FeJ mice, relatively susceptible, did not control the infecting VAT and did not exhibit VSG-specific antibodies. These mice died with a median survival time of 22 days. The (B10.BR X C3H)F1 hybrids derived from crosses between resistant and susceptible mice all exhibited VSG-specific antibody responses and controlled the infecting VAT population. However, the median survival time of the F1 hybrids (24 days) was not significantly different from the survival time of the susceptible C3H parent. These findings demonstrate for the first time that antibody-mediated control of parasitemia is inherited as a dominant trait; that overall resistance, as measured by survival time, is inherited as a recessive trait (e.g., susceptibility is dominant); and that the two events segregate independently of one another. Further analyses of the inheritance of immunity and resistance (survival time) were made in which the F2 hybrid and backcross studies revealed that there are multiple genes controlling the VSG-specific antibody response as well as determining susceptibility. An extension of the present studies to a similar but non-major histocompatibility complex-mouse model system of resistance and susceptibility (C57BL/6J and C3H/HeJ mice, F1 hybrids, and 11 recombinant inbred B X H strains derived from them) was made in order to link the strain distribution patterns of known genetic markers with control of VSG-specific antibody responses or with control of susceptibility. Results of this study showed that resistance varied independently of the ability to control parasitemia with VSG-specific B cell responses.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

Functional homologs of the Arabidopsis RPM1 disease resistance gene in bean and pea.

We showed that a bacterial avirulence (avr) gene function, avrPpiA1, from the pea pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv pisi, is recognized by some, but not all, genotypes of Arabidopsis. Thus, an avr gene functionally defined on a crop species is also an avr gene on Arabidopsis. The activity of avrPpiA1 on a series of Arabidopsis genotypes is identical to that of the avrRpm1 gene from P.s. pv maculicola previously defined using Arabidopsis. The two avr genes are homologous and encode nearly identical predicted products. Moreover, this conserved avr function is also recognized by some bean and pea cultivars in what has been shown to be a gene-for-gene manner. We further demonstrated that the Arabidopsis disease resistance locus, RPM1, conditioning resistance to avrRpm1, also conditions resistance to bacterial strains carrying avrPpiA1. Therefore, bean, pea, and conceivably other crop species contain functional and potentially molecular homologs of RPM1.