Molecular Basis of Drug Interaction with L-Type Ca2+ Channels

Different types of voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels exist in the plasma membrane of electrically excitable cells. By controlling depolarization-induced Ca²⁺ entry into cells they serve important physiological functions, such as excitation-contraction coupling, neurotransmitter and hormone secretion, and neuronal plasticity. Their function is fine-tuned by a variety of modulators, such as enzymes and G-proteins. Block of so-called L-type Ca²⁺ channels by drugs is exploited as a therapeutic principle to treat cardiovascular disorders, such as hypertension. More recently, block of so-called non-L-type Ca²⁺ channels was found to exert therapeutic effects in the treatment of severe pain and ischemic stroke. As the subunits of different Ca²⁺ channel types have been cloned, the modulatory sites for enzymes, G-proteins, and drugs can now be determined using molecular engineering and heterologous expression. Here we summarize recent work that has allowed us to determine the sites of action of L-type Ca²⁺ channel modulators. Together with previous biochemical, electrophysiological, and drug binding data these results provide exciting insight into the molecular pharmacology of this voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channel family.     

Grazing Pressure by a Bacterivorous Flagellate Reverses the Relative Abundance of Comamonas acidovorans PX54 and Vibrio Strain CB5 in Chemostat Cocultures

The response of the bacterial strains Comamonas acidovorans PX54 (β subclass of the class Proteobacteria) and Vibrio strain CB5 (γ subclass of the class Proteobacteria) to grazing by the bacterivorous flagellate Ochromonas sp. was examined in one-stage chemostat experiments under conditions of low growth rates with a complex carbon source. The two bacterial strains were cultured together; they were cultured without flagellates in the first phase of the experiments and in the presence of the flagellates in the second phase. Monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies were used to determine the numbers and sizes of C. acidovorans PX54 and Vibrio strain CB5 cells. The flagellates caused strong changes in total bacterial cell numbers, in the relative abundances of the individual bacterial strains, and in bacterial cell size distribution. Vibrio strain CB5 dominated the total bacterial cell numbers during the flagellate-free phase of the experiments with a relative abundance of 93%, but this declined to 33% after inoculation with the flagellate. In contrast to Vibrio strain CB5, C. acidovorans PX54 responded to grazing with a strong expansion of cell length distribution toward large, filamentous cells. These changes in cell morphology resulted in a high percentage of inedible cells in the C. acidovorans PX54 population but not in the Vibrio strain CB5 population, which caused the observed change in the relative abundances of the strains. Batch culture experiments without the flagellate demonstrated that the elongation of C. acidovorans PX54 cells was dependent on their growth rate. This indicates that the occurrence of filamentous C. acidovorans PX54 cells is not a direct response to chemical stimuli released by the flagellates but rather a response to increased growth rates due to flagellate grazing.Predator-prey interactions of coexisting, free-living aquatic bacteria and bacterivorous protozoa have coevolved for more than a billion years (28). This enormous time span and the short generation times of both groups of microorganisms should have resulted in a high degree of evolutionary adaptation on both sides. Bacteria may have developed defense strategies to prevent themselves from being ingested (preingestional strategies) or digested (postingestional strategies) by their protozoan predators, which, expectedly, adaptated to circumvent the bacterial defense mechanisms. Information about the strategies involved in these predator-prey interactions is scarce. Recently, Jürgens and Güde (20) reviewed the strategies of bacteria and stressed the lack of knowledge in this field.Studies on size-selective ingestion (grazing) of bacterivorous protozoa (6, 10, 25) indicate that very small and large bacteria are partly or totally protected from protozoan grazing (12, 20). This finding is supported by field and experimental observations showing the occurrence and persistence of large bacterial filaments and aggregates during times of high grazing pressure (11, 21, 29, 41). The experimental evidence for protection and the increasing number of reports on the presence of filamentous bacteria in freshwater ecosystems (12, 13, 19, 35, 39, 41) indicate that this bacterial morphotype exhibits an ecologically significant defense strategy against protozoan grazing. It is not known to which species these protected forms belong. Additionally, it is unclear if the filamentous bacteria grow permanently with these, with respect to grazing, advantageous morphological properties or if they express these characteristic features only under strong grazing pressure.In a recent study, Pernthaler et al. (30) demonstrated that a slow-growing bacterial community reacted to the addition of bacterivorous flagellates within 1 day: one group produced filamentous, grazing-resistant forms, and another group of bacteria reacted with a massive growth rate increase. Similarly, Jürgens et al. (21) observed in enclosure studies, after experimentally increasing the protozoan grazing pressure, that there was a rapid and strong change in the morphological structure of the bacterial community. After 3 days, mainly filamentous and other inedible bacterial cells dominated the bacterial biomass, with a prevalence of 80 to 90%.Different mechanisms are conceivable for such changes in the morphological structure of bacterial communities. First, nonfilamentous, edible strains may simply be replaced after some time by inedible, permanently filamentous strains. In situations with bacterial generation times longer than 1 day and undetectably low abundances of filamentous cells (30), such an indirect selection mechanism can hardly cause visible changes in community structure within 24 h. But the possibility cannot be ruled out that this mechanism is of relevance in natural ecosystems. Second, medium-size, edible cells may become elongated and thus form filaments. This type of response to strong protistan grazing might be controlled by two different mechanisms: (i) elongation of the cells due to grazing-mediated changes in bacterial growth conditions (indirect induction of filament formation) or (ii) direct induction of morphological changes by chemical stimuli. Such chemical stimuli might be produced and released by the protozoan predators (predator kairomone) or produced by the prey bacteria and set free by the predators during digestion. The second type of stimuli would act as an alarm substance. It is not known if selection or one of the induction mechanisms triggers the observed reactions of bacterial communities. Pernthaler et al. (30) speculated that a chemical stimulus caused the observed changes in their experiments, since they found an immediate response upon addition of a flagellate grazer.Detailed information on the interactions of bacteria with protozoan grazers and the resulting bacterial defense strategies are necessary for a comprehensive understanding of a number of important issues in microbial ecology. This includes questions about the influence of protozoa on (i) the bacterial species composition of natural communities, (ii) the regulation of bacterial production and mineralization in aquatic systems, and (iii) the survival and behavior of allochthonous bacteria such as pathogenic members of the family Enterobacteriaceae or genetically engineered microorganisms in the environment.In this study, we used a model system to investigate the interactions of two bacterial strains with the bacterivorous nanoflagellate Ochromonas sp. The bacterium Vibrio sp. strain CB5 originated from the pelagic zone of Lake Constance (southern Germany) and was isolated from a chemostat inoculated with a water sample from that lake (14). The other strain, Comamonas acidovorans PX54, represents a member of a phylogenetic group which is abundant in Lake Plußsee (located near Plön, northern Germany) and in other lakes in the same area (9).In this study, we investigated mechanisms that control the observed changes in the composition of the model community and investigated possible defense strategies of pelagic bacteria against protozoan grazing.     

The photosynthesis – leaf nitrogen relationship at ambient and elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide: a meta-analysis

Estimation of leaf photosynthetic rate (A) from leaf nitrogen content (N) is both conceptually and numerically important in models of plant, ecosystem, and biosphere responses to global change. The relationship between A and N has been studied extensively at ambient CO₂ but much less at elevated CO₂. This study was designed to (i) assess whether the A–N relationship was more similar for species within than between community and vegetation types, and (ii) examine how growth at elevated CO₂ affects the A–N relationship. Data were obtained for 39 C3 species grown at ambient CO₂ and 10 C3 species grown at ambient and elevated CO₂. A regression model was applied to each species as well as to species pooled within different community and vegetation types. Cluster analysis of the regression coefficients indicated that species measured at ambient CO₂ did not separate into distinct groups matching community or vegetation type. Instead, most community and vegetation types shared the same general parameter space for regression coefficients. Growth at elevated CO₂ increased photosynthetic nitrogen use efficiency for pines and deciduous trees. When species were pooled by vegetation type, the A–N relationship for deciduous trees expressed on a leaf-mass basis was not altered by elevated CO₂, while the intercept increased for pines. When regression coefficients were averaged to give mean responses for different vegetation types, elevated CO₂ increased the intercept and the slope for deciduous trees but increased only the intercept for pines. There were no statistical differences between the pines and deciduous trees for the effect of CO₂. Generalizations about the effect of elevated CO₂ on the A–N relationship, and differences between pines and deciduous trees will be enhanced as more data become available.     

Carbohydrate Structures of β-Trace Protein from Human Cerebrospinal Fluid: Evidence for "Brain-Type"N-Glycosylation

Abstract: The carbohydrate structures of β-trace protein from human cerebrospinal fluid have been elucidated. This protein carries exclusively N-linked oligosaccharides at two sites (Asn²⁹ and Asn⁵⁶). Enzymatically released N -glycans were studied by compositional and methylation analyses, high-pH anion-exchange chromatography, and liquid secondary ion mass spectrometry. All glycans were found to be of the complex type, and most (90%) of them were biantennary with no (40%), one (40%), or two (20%) N -acetylneuraminic acid residues. The rest were triantennary chains or biantennary chains with intact or truncated lactosamine repeats. The innermost N -acetylglucosamine residues of nearly all structures were found to be α1,6-fucosylated. Peripheral fucose (about 20%α1,3-linked to N -acetylglucosamine) was also detected. Seventy percent of the oligosaccharides contained a bisecting N -acetylglucosamine. Especially in the neutral, but also in the monosialylated oligosaccharide fractions, many incomplete antennae consisting of N -acetylglucosamine only were present. At least 20 different N -glycans were identified. Analysis of the site-specific glycosylation patterns at Asn²⁹ and Asn⁵⁶ revealed only minor differences. According to the structural features (a high degree of fucosylation, high amounts of bisecting N -acetylglucosamine, as well as terminal N -acetylglucosamine and galactose residues, and significant amounts of N -acetylneuraminic acid in α2,3 linkage), this protein can be classified as "brain-type" glycosylated.     

Sugar transport across the plasma membranes of higher plants

The fluxes of carbohydrates across the plasma membranes of higher-plant cells are catalysed mainly by monosaccharide and disaccharide-H⁺ symporters. cDNAs encoding these different transporters have been cloned recently and the functions and properties of the encoded proteins have been studied extensively in heterologous expression systems. Several of the proteins have been identified biochemically in these expression systems and their location in plants has been shown immunohistochemically or with transgenic plants which were transformed with reporter genes, expressed under the control of the promoters of individual transporter genes. In this paper we summarize the current knowledge on the molecular biology and biochemistry of higher-plant sugar transport proteins.     

Trisomy 9p and unusual translocation mongolism in siblings due to different 3:1 segregations of maternal translocation rcp(9;21)(p11;q11)

Summary Two sisters are described, each with a specific retardation syndrome due to a balanced reciprocal translocation 9p;21q in the mother. As a result of different 3:1 segregations, one of them has a trisomy 9p with all typical features; the other one reveals a typical Down's syndrome having an unusual translocation karyotype.     

Development of E.coli virus T1: the pattern of gene expression.

Summary T1 infected bacteria exhibit a distinct pattern of gene expression. The control of this expression is accessible to biochemical analysis. T1 induces the synthesis of 31 proteins inE. coli. The virion contains 15 proteins. By means of T1 amber mutants, 10 gene products have been assigned to specific T1 genes. Three classes of T1 proteins are defined by the kinetics of their syntheses: early, early-late and late proteins. The regulation of protein synthesis involves at least three mechanisms: for cessation of host gene expression, for discontinuation of the early class during the late phase and for induction of the late T1 proteins. The positive control of late gene expression is not coupled to replication. The host RNA-polymerase transcribes the viral genome throughout the infectious cycle. No virus coded RNA-polymerase is induced.     

Neurosecretory fibres in the median eyes of the scorpion,Androctonus australis L.

Summary The retina of the median eyes of the North African scorpion, Androctonus australis L., is supplied with numerous neurosecretory nerve fibres which establish synaptoid contacts on the retinula cells. The number of fibres or profiles of varicosities of fibre terminals associated with a retinular unit (five retinula cells with a fused rhabdom) varies between 10 and 20. Electron-opaque vesicles with a diameter of 80–100 nm are abundant within the axonal profiles. The synaptoid junctions are characterized by postsynaptic electron-dense material on the inner leaflet of the retinula cell membrane and, frequently, presynaptic submembranous dense material. Because of these ultrastructural features, the junctions observed here resemble typical interneuronal synaptic contacts. Hence this kind of neurosecretory junction appears to be unique among arthropods.It is suggested that the neurosecretory fibres within the retina represent the efferent pathways for the control of the circadian pigment movements within the retinula cells.Supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (F1 77/7)     

Effect of Ethylenediaminetetraacetate upon the Surface of Escherichia coli

The effect of ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA) on the envelope of two strains of Escherichia coli (B and Cla) was studied with freeze-fracturing methods. Untreated cells showed the outer membrane's outer surface with a fine texture of randomly spaced depressions of about 4.5-nm diameter; small areas with symmetrical arrangements of structural surface elements were also observed. The outer membrane's fracture plane revealed a random distribution of particles on its "concave" plane, only occasionally interrupted by particle-free areas. The "convex" aspect of the outer membrane's fracture plane showed only a few scattered particles. The cleavage plane of the inner membrane was often interrupted by many localized elevated plateaus, at which the cleaving process had, for short distances, switched to the outer membrane. The effects of EDTA treatment were mainly seen in the structure of the freeze-etched outer membrane: (i) the pits as well as the symmetrical surface elements of the outer membrane's outer surface had disappeared; (ii) a number of plateaus (about 20 to 50/cell) were seen at which a cleavage plane within the inner membrane had switched to the hydrophobic portion of the outer membrane (outer membrane's fracture plane). These plateaus were also visible in untreated cells; however, EDTA treatment apparently caused an increased exposure of plateaus. Surface areas, exposed by freeze-etching, revealed the underlying plateaus as elevations in the surface contour of the cell, suggesting a slower etching rate in the zones of the plateaus relative to the rest of the outer membrane. Well-defined, particle-free patches in the outer membrane's fracture plane, concave, were more frequent and larger in size after EDTA treatment than in the controls. In the presence of glycerol, the cells often cleaved in the outer membrane's fracture plane, but isolated plateaus were rarely observed. After metabolic poisoning of cells for 15 to 25 min at 37 degrees C, the plateaus had widened. These data suggest that the material of the plateaus has a slow rate of lateral diffusion. Placement of EDTA-treated cells in fresh medium at 37 degrees C caused, after 3 to 5 min, the reoccurrence of the pitted surface structure. We propose that the plateaus represent localized zones, at which newly synthesized lipopolysaccharide has been inserted.