First Record of Culicoides oxystoma Kieffer and Diversity of Species within the Schultzei Group of Culicoides Latreille (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) Biting Midges in Senegal

The Schultzei group of Culicoides Latreille (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) is distributed throughout Africa to northern Asia and Australasia and includes several potential vector species of livestock pathogens. The taxonomy of the species belonging to this species group is confounded by the wide geographical distribution and morphological variation exhibited by many species. In this work, morphological and molecular approaches were combined to assess the taxonomic validity of the species and morphological variants of the Schultzei group found in Senegal by comparing their genetic diversity with that of specimens from other geographical regions. The species list for Senegal was updated with four species: Culicoides kingi, C. oxystoma, C. enderleini and C. nevilli being recorded. This is the first record of C. oxystoma from Africa south of Sahara, and its genetic relationship with samples from Israel, Japan and Australia is presented. This work provides a basis for ecological studies of the seasonal and spatial dynamics of species of this species group that will contribute to better understanding of the epidemiology of the viruses they transmit.     

Natural nodulation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Acacia mangium</Emphasis>–<Emphasis Type="Italic">Acacia auriculiformis</Emphasis> hybrids: distribution of the indigenous strains in the nodules

Polymerase Chain Reaction/Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (PCR/RFLP) of the InterGenic Spacer (IGS) between rDNA 16S and 23S was used to identify indigenous strains nodulating four clones of Acacia mangium–Acacia auriculiformis hybrids cultivated in non-sterilized sandy soil from Sangalkam (Senegal) under greenhouse conditions. The experiment was for 4 months. The analysis of restriction fragment length polymorphism obtained with MspI and HaeIII restriction enzymes allowed the identification of 15 different IGS Groups with a distribution which significantly differed according to the clone of the hybrid (strains of one clone can belong to three and five different IGS Groups). Three large multi-lobed nodules were obtained on the root system of clone 3.26 within 5 months. Also, the nature of the rhizobia contained in each lobe was determined. The results showed that the lobes of large nodules can be occupied by one or two strains and the nodules analysed were mainly occupied by those belonging to IGS Group 12.     

Intermittent preventive treatment of malaria in children: a qualitative study of community perceptions and recommendations in Burkina Faso and Mali

Background

Intermittent preventive treatment of malaria in children (IPTc) is a highly efficacious method of malaria control where malaria transmission is highly seasonal. However, no studies published to date have examined community perceptions of IPTc.

Methods

A qualitative study was undertaken in parallel with a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial of IPTc conducted in Mali and Burkina Faso in 2008–2009 to assess community perceptions of and recommendations for IPTc. Caregivers and community health workers (CHWs) were purposively sampled. Seventy-two in-depth individual interviews and 23 focus group discussions were conducted.

Findings

Widespread perceptions of health benefits for children led to enthusiasm for the trial and for IPTc specifically. Trust in and respect for those providing the tablets and a sense of obligation to the community to participate in sanctioned activities favoured initial adoption. IPTc fits in well with existing understandings of childhood illness. Participants did not express concerns about the specific drugs used for IPTc or about providing tablets to children without symptoms of malaria. There was no evidence that IPTc was perceived as a substitute for bed net usage, nor did it inhibit care seeking. Participants recommended that distribution be “closer to the population”, but expressed concern over caregivers'' ability to administer tablets at home.

Conclusions

The trial context mediated perceptions of IPTc. Nonetheless, the results indicate that community perceptions of IPTc in the settings studied were largely favourable and that the delivery strategy rather than the tablets themselves presented the main areas of concern for caregivers and CHWs. The study identifies a number of key questions to consider in planning an IPTc distribution strategy. Single-dose formulations could increase the success of IPTc implementation, as could integration of IPTc within a package of activities, such as bed net distribution and free curative care, for which demand is already high.     

Sanitation and Hygiene-Specific Risk Factors for Moderate-to-Severe Diarrhea in Young Children in the Global Enteric Multicenter Study, 2007–2011: Case-Control Study

BackgroundDiarrheal disease is the second leading cause of disease in children less than 5 y of age. Poor water, sanitation, and hygiene conditions are the primary routes of exposure and infection. Sanitation and hygiene interventions are estimated to generate a 36% and 48% reduction in diarrheal risk in young children, respectively. Little is known about whether the number of households sharing a sanitation facility affects a child''s risk of diarrhea. The objective of this study was to describe sanitation and hygiene access across the Global Enteric Multicenter Study (GEMS) sites in Africa and South Asia and to assess sanitation and hygiene exposures, including shared sanitation access, as risk factors for moderate-to-severe diarrhea (MSD) in children less than 5 y of age.Methods/FindingsThe GEMS matched case-control study was conducted between December 1, 2007, and March 3, 2011, at seven sites in Basse, The Gambia; Nyanza Province, Kenya; Bamako, Mali; Manhiça, Mozambique; Mirzapur, Bangladesh; Kolkata, India; and Karachi, Pakistan. Data was collected for 8,592 case children aged <5 y old experiencing MSD and for 12,390 asymptomatic age, gender, and neighborhood-matched controls. An MSD case was defined as a child with a diarrheal illness <7 d duration comprising ≥3 loose stools in 24 h and ≥1 of the following: sunken eyes, skin tenting, dysentery, intravenous (IV) rehydration, or hospitalization. Site-specific conditional logistic regression models were used to explore the association between sanitation and hygiene exposures and MSD. Most households at six sites (>93%) had access to a sanitation facility, while 70% of households in rural Kenya had access to a facility. Practicing open defecation was a risk factor for MSD in children <5 y old in Kenya. Sharing sanitation facilities with 1–2 or ≥3 other households was a statistically significant risk factor for MSD in Kenya, Mali, Mozambique, and Pakistan. Among those with a designated handwashing area near the home, soap or ash were more frequently observed at control households and were significantly protective against MSD in Mozambique and India.ConclusionsThis study suggests that sharing a sanitation facility with just one to two other households can increase the risk of MSD in young children, compared to using a private facility. Interventions aimed at increasing access to private household sanitation facilities may reduce the burden of MSD in children. These findings support the current World Health Organization/ United Nations Children''s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) system that categorizes shared sanitation as unimproved.     

Omura's whale off West Africa: autochthonous population or inter-oceanic vagrant in the Atlantic Ocean?

The surveillance of marine mammal strandings within the framework of a biomonitoring scheme for the Mauritanian coast led to the discovery in 2013 of a 3.98?m long, juvenile rorqual Balaenoptera sp. in an advanced state of decomposition near Chott Boul (16°32.488′N, 016°27.0317′W). Photographs and skin samples were taken, but the specimen could not be collected. Based on limited morphological evidence, only Balaenoptera edeni and B. omurai were plausible. Sequences of three mtDNA regions, i.e. parts of the cox1 and the cytb genes as well as the D-loop, for a total of 2636?bp (> 16% of the mitogenome) identified the specimen as an Omura's whale, B. omurai, the first record in the Atlantic Ocean and at least 11,400?km away from its closest known range in the SW Indian Ocean (Madagascar). The question of whether the specimen is a vagrant or belongs to an unrecognized Atlantic population is discussed. Advection by currents or transport on a ship's bow bulb following collision are discarded. Circumstances (juvenile status, great distance from Indo-Pacific, necessary inter-oceanic passage through cold temperate waters) may slightly favour the hypothesis that B. omurai, if rare, could be autochthonous in the Atlantic. Beach surveys remain a useful tool to assess trends in cetacean species composition, to detect unusual mortality events and to help assess the impacts of anthropogenic activities. This is particularly applicable to remote areas where the marine mammal fauna is poorly known and where fisheries effort is high, such as the Mauritanian coast.     

Identification by PCR of Non-typhoidal Salmonella enterica Serovars Associated with Invasive Infections among Febrile Patients in Mali

Background

In sub-Saharan Africa, non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS) are emerging as a prominent cause of invasive disease (bacteremia and focal infections such as meningitis) in infants and young children. Importantly, including data from Mali, three serovars, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, Salmonella Enteritidis and Salmonella Dublin, account for the majority of non-typhoidal Salmonella isolated from these patients.

Methods

We have extended a previously developed series of polymerase chain reactions (PCRs) based on O serogrouping and H typing to identify Salmonella Typhimurium and variants (mostly I 4,[5],12:i:-), Salmonella Enteritidis and Salmonella Dublin. We also designed primers to detect Salmonella Stanleyville, a serovar found in West Africa. Another PCR was used to differentiate diphasic Salmonella Typhimurium and monophasic Salmonella Typhimurium from other O serogroup B, H:i serovars. We used these PCRs to blind-test 327 Salmonella serogroup B and D isolates that were obtained from the blood cultures of febrile patients in Bamako, Mali.

Principal Findings

We have shown that when used in conjunction with our previously described O-serogrouping PCR, our PCRs are 100% sensitive and specific in identifying Salmonella Typhimurium and variants, Salmonella Enteritidis, Salmonella Dublin and Salmonella Stanleyville. When we attempted to differentiate 171 Salmonella Typhimurium (I 4,[ 5],12:i:1,2) strains from 52 monophasic Salmonella Typhimurium (I 4,[5],12:i:-) strains, we were able to correctly identify 170 of the Salmonella Typhimurium and 51 of the Salmonella I 4,[5],12:i:- strains.

Conclusion

We have described a simple yet effective PCR method to support surveillance of the incidence of invasive disease caused by NTS in developing countries.     

A Qualitative Health Systems Effectiveness Analysis of the Prevention of Malaria in Pregnancy with Intermittent Preventive Treatment and Insecticide Treated Nets in Mali

Introduction

Delivery of intermittent preventive treatment with sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine to pregnant women (IPTp-SP) through antenatal clinic (ANC) in Mali is low, and whilst ANC delivery of insecticide treated nets (ITNs) is higher, coverage is still below national and international targets. The aim of this study was to explain quantitative data from a related study which identified ineffective processes in the delivery of these interventions in one district in Mali.

Methods

In-depth interviews were conducted with health workers at the national, regional, district and health facility levels on their perceptions of reasons for the ineffective processes identified in the quantitative study, and their reported practices. Themes were coded for each ineffective process, and within these a health systems lens was used. Content analysis was used for emergent themes within this framework. MindMaps were used to display the findings.

Results

Intervention specific factors for the ineffective delivery of IPTp-SP included misunderstanding of the upper limit of the gestational age at which SP could be given and side effects of SP. Incorrect practices had been recommended in training and supervision of health workers. Pregnant women who were ill on attendance at ANC were not consistently managed across health facilities. The most common reason for not offering women an ITN on their first ANC visit was if they were from outside the health facility catchment area. Broader health systems issues influencing the effectiveness of delivery of each of these interventions were also identified.

Conclusion

In this setting, intervention-specific factors resulted in the ineffective delivery of IPTp-SP. These relate to complex policy guidelines, lack of guidance on how to implement the guidelines, and the institutionalising of practices that undermine the national guidelines. Interventions may be implemented and show real gains in the shorter-term whilst waiting for broader health systems issues to be addressed.     

Nucleotide Composition of Cellular Internal Ribosome Entry Sites Defines Dependence on NF45 and Predicts a Posttranscriptional Mitotic Regulon

The vast majority of cellular mRNAs initiate their translations through a well-defined mechanism of ribosome recruitment that occurs at the 5′-terminal 7-methylguanosine cap with the help of several canonical protein factors. A subset of cellular and viral mRNAs contain regulatory motifs in their 5′ untranslated regions (UTRs), termed internal ribosome entry sites (IRES), that sidestep this canonical mode of initiation. On cellular mRNAs, this mechanism requires IRES trans-acting protein factors (ITAFs) that facilitate ribosome recruitment downstream of the cap. While several ITAFs and their target mRNAs have been empirically identified, the in silico prediction of targets has proved difficult. Here, we report that a high AU content (>60%) of the IRES-containing 5′ UTRs serves as an excellent predictor of dependence on NF45, a recently identified ITAF. Moreover, we provide evidence that cells deficient in NF45 ITAF activity exhibit reduced IRES-mediated translation of X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein (XIAP) and cellular inhibitor of apoptosis protein 1 (cIAP1) mRNAs that, in turn, leads to dysregulated expression of their respective targets, survivin and cyclin E. This specific defect in IRES translation explains in part the cytokinesis impairment and senescence-like phenotype observed in HeLa cells expressing NF45 RNA interference (RNAi). This study uncovers a novel role for NF45 in regulating ploidy and highlights the importance of IRES-mediated translation in cellular homeostasis.     

Directed sequencing and annotation of three Dicentrarchus labrax L. chromosomes by applying Sanger- and pyrosequencing technologies on pooled DNA of comparatively mapped BAC clones

Dicentrarchus labrax is one of the major marine aquaculture species in the European Union. In this study, we have developed a directed-sequencing strategy to sequence three sea bass chromosomes and compared results with other teleosts.Three BAC DNA pools were created from sea bass BAC clones that mapped to stickleback chromosomes/groups V, XVII and XXI. The pools were sequenced to 17-39x coverage by pyrosequencing. Data assembly was supported by Sanger reads and mate pair data and resulted in superscaffolds of 13.2 Mb, 17.5 Mb and 13.7 Mb respectively. Annotation features of the superscaffolds include 1477 genes. We analyzed size change of exon, intron and intergenic sequence between teleost species and deduced a simple model for the evolution of genome composition in teleost lineage.Combination of second generation sequencing technologies, Sanger sequencing and genome partitioning strategies allows “high-quality draft assemblies” of chromosome-sized superscaffolds, which are crucial for the prediction and annotation of complete genes.