A cytoplasmically inherited mutant controlling early chloroplast development in barley seedlings

Cytoplasmic line 2 (CL2) has been previously reported as a cytoplasmically inherited chlorophyll-deficient mutant selected from a chloroplast-mutator genotype of barley. It was characterized by a localized effect on the upper part of the first-leaf blade. At emergence the CL2 seedlings-phenotype varied from a grainy light green to an albino color. They gradually greened during the following days, starting from the base of the blade and extending to cover most of its surface when it was fully grown. The present results, from both light microscopy and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), confirmed the previously described positional and time-dependent expression of the CL2 syndrome along the first-leaf blade. During the first days after emergence, light microscopy showed a normally developed chloroplast at the middle part of the CL2 first-leaf blade, meanwhile at the tip only small plastids were observed. TEM showed that the shapes and the internal structure of the small plastids were abnormal, presenting features of proplastids, amyloplasts and/or senescent gerontoplasts. Besides, they lack plastid ribosomes, contrasting with what was observed inside chloroplasts from normal tips, which presented abundant ribosomes. Phenotypic observations and spectrophotometric analysis of seedlings produced by mother plants that had been grown under different temperatures indicated that higher temperatures during seed formation were negatively associated with pigment content in CL2 seedlings. In contrast, higher temperatures during the growth of CL2 seedlings have been associated with increased pigment content. Aqueous solution with kanamycin and streptomycin, which are antibiotics known to interfere with plastid gene translation, were used for imbibition of wild-type and CL2 seeds. Antibiotic treatments differentially reduced the chlorophyll content in the upper part of the first-leaf blade in CL2, but not in wild-type seedlings. These results suggest that in the wild-type, plastid-gene proteins which are necessary for chloroplast development and chlorophyll synthesis in the upper part of the first-leaf blade are usually synthesized during embryogenesis. However, under certain circumstances, in CL2 seedlings, they would be synthesized after germination. In addition, a shortening of the sheath has been observed in association with pigment decrease suggesting the existence of plastid factors affecting the expression of some nuclear genes. We consider the CL2 mutant a unique experimental material useful to study biological phenomena and external factors regulating plastid, and nuclear gene expression during embryogenesis and early seedling development.Communicated by R. Hagemann     

Evaluation of medication side-effects from an economic perspective

Pharmacovigilance is a health sciences discipline devoted to the data collection, data analysis and decision-making related to adverse drug reactions (ADR). It has played an expanded theoretical and practical role since the 1960's. However, few studies have made a careful analysis of the decision-making costs in evaluating ADRs. Herein, the relevant literature is reviewed concerning the costs generated due to the attention of the drug adverse events in medical practice. Examples are taken from international literature which offer by extrapolation of the potential future costs of ADR in Colombia. The objective is to sensitize and generate insights about the need for implementation and development of a national pharmacovigilance system.     

Copper blocks quinolinic acid neurotoxicity in rats: contribution of antioxidant systems

Reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress are involved in quinolinic acid (QUIN)-induced neurotoxicity. QUIN, a N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAr) agonist and prooxidant molecule, produces NMDAr overactivation, excitotoxic events, and direct reactive oxygen species formation. Copper is an essential metal exhibiting both modulatory effects on neuronal excitatory activity and antioxidant properties. To investigate whether this metal is able to counteract the neurotoxic and oxidative actions of QUIN, we administered copper (as CuSO(4)) intraperitoneally to rats (2.5, 5.0, 7.5, and 10.0 mg/kg) 30 min before the striatal infusion of 1 microliter of QUIN (240 nmol). A 5.0 mg/kg CuSO(4) dose significantly increased the copper content in the striatum, reduced the neurotoxicity measured both as circling behavior and striatal gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) depletion, and blocked the oxidative injury evaluated as striatal lipid peroxidation (LP). In addition, copper reduced the QUIN-induced decreased striatal activity of Cu,Zn-dependent superoxide dismutase, and increased the ferroxidase activity of ceruloplasmin in cerebrospinal fluid from QUIN-treated rats. However, copper also produced significant increases of plasma lactate dehydrogenase activity and mortality at the highest doses employed (7.5 and 10.0 mg/kg). These results show that at low doses, copper exerts a protective effect on in vivo QUIN neurotoxicity.     

Opposite effects of galectin-1 on alternative metabolic pathways of L-arginine in resident,inflammatory, and activated macrophages

Recent evidence has implicated galectins and their carbohydrate ligands as master regulators of the inflammatory response. Galectin-1, a member of this family, has shown specific anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory effects. To gain insight into the potential mechanisms involved in these effects, we investigated the effects of galectin-1 in L-arginine metabolism of peritoneal rat macrophages. Pretreatment of macrophages with galectin-1 resulted in a dose- and time-dependent inhibition of lipopolysaccharide-induced nitric oxide (NO) production, accompanied by a decrease in inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression (the classic pathway of L-arginine). On the other hand, galectin-1 favored the balance toward activation of L-arginase, the alternative metabolic pathway of L-arginine. Inhibition of NO production was not the result of increased macrophage apoptosis because addition of this beta-galactoside-binding protein to macrophages under the same experimental conditions did not affect the apoptotic threshold of these cells. To understand how endogenous galectin-1 is regulated in macrophages under inflammatory stress, we finally explored the ultrastructural distribution, expression, and secretion of galectin-1 in resident, inflammatory, and activated macrophages. This study provides an alternative cellular mechanism based on the modulation of L-arginine metabolism to understand the molecular basis of the anti-inflammatory properties displayed by this carbohydrate-binding protein.     

Comparative Analysis of Superoxide Dismutase Activity between Acute Pharmacological Models and a Transgenic Mouse Model of Huntington's Disease

We examined the activity of striatal superoxide dismutase (SOD) in two acute pharmacological models of Huntington's disease (HD), and compared it with SOD activity in the striata of mice transgenic for the HD mutation. Total SOD, and Cu/ZnSOD activities increased in young transgenic mice, but decreased in older (35 week) mice. We consider that the increased enzyme activity represents a compensatory mechanism to protect cells from free radical-induced damage, but the system becomes insufficient in older animals. Major decreases in SOD activity were also observed both after quinolinic acid and 3-nitropropionic acid intrastriatal injections. The present results indicate that in both types of HD models striatal oxidative damage occurs, and that it is associated with alterations in the cellular antioxidant system.     

Generalized microsporidiosis caused by Encephalitozoon sp. in a pediatric patient with Bruton's disease

We present the case of a four-year-old boy with a history of repeated upper respiratory tract infections and pyoderma. He presented fever, seizures, inability to talk, loss of swallowing, fine tremor in the upper extremities; positive bilateral Babinski reflex and quadriparesis. The diagnosis of Bruton's disease and generalized microporidiosis was based on immunologic analysis, smear tests with chromotrope R2 stain and indirect immunofluorescense with monoclonal 3B6 antibody for Encephalitozoon species in samples of spinal fluid, bronchial and paranasal sinus aspirates and stool, which were all positive. The patient was treated with albendazol during 72 days; he left the hospital in a good condition, walking, talking and able to swallow. His laboratory test controls were negative; he is followed up in the outpatient department.     

Lethal and sublethal effects of selected insecticides and an insect growth regulator on the boll weevil (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) ectoparasitoid Catolaccus grandis (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae)

A laboratory culture of Catolaccus grandis (Burks), an ectoparasitoid of the boll weevil, Anthonomus grandis grandis Boheman, was exposed to lethal and sublethal doses of insecticides and an insect growth regulator using a spray chamber bioassay. Materials tested were azinphos-methyl, endosulfan, fipronil, malathion, cyfluthrin, dimethoate, spinosad, methyl parathion, acephate, oxamyl, and tebufenozide. At full rates, spinosad was significantly less toxic to female C. grandis than other treatments except endosulfan. Fipronil and malathion were significantly more toxic to females than other treatments. Most of the chemicals tested were highly toxic to male C. grandis; spinosad was least toxic. At reduced rates, most of 4 selected chemicals tested were low in toxicity to C. grandis; however, a reduced rate of malathion was significantly more toxic to females than other treatments. No C. grandis pupae developed from parasitism during a 24-h treatment period with malathion or spinosad. The sex ratio of progeny from sprayed adults appeared to be unaffected by the treatments.     

Surfactant components modulate fibroblast apoptosis and type I collagen and collagenase-1 expression

During lung injury, fibroblasts migrate into the alveolar spaces where they can be exposed to pulmonary surfactant. We examined the effects of Survanta and surfactant protein A (SP-A) on fibroblast growth and apoptosis and on type I collagen, collagenase-1, and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP)-1 expression. Lung fibroblasts were treated with 100, 500, and 1,000 microg/ml of Survanta; 10, 50, and 100 microg/ml of SP-A; and 500 microg/ml of Survanta plus 50 microg/ml of SP-A. Growth rate was evaluated by a formazan-based chromogenic assay, apoptosis was evaluated by DNA end labeling and ELISA, and collagen, collagenase-1, and TIMP-1 were evaluated by Northern blotting. Survanta provoked fibroblast apoptosis, induced collagenase-1 expression, and decreased type I collagen affecting mRNA stability approximately 10-fold as assessed with the use of actinomycin D. Collagen synthesis and collagenase activity paralleled the gene expression results. SP-A increased collagen expression approximately 2-fold and had no effect on collagenase-1, TIMP-1, or growth rate. When fibroblasts were exposed to a combination of Survanta plus SP-A, the effects of Survanta were partially reversed. These findings suggest that surfactant lipids may protect against intraluminal fibrogenesis by inducing fibroblast apoptosis and decreasing collagen accumulation.     

Quick Identification of the Members of the Glutamine Synthetase Gene Family from Sunflower by Simultaneous Amplification of cDNA with Degenerate Primers

A single degenerate glutamine synthetase (GS)-specific primer was used to amplify the 3′ end of cDNAs derived from different GS genes that are expressed in leaves and roots of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L. cv. Peredovic). Four types of GS cDNA (I, II, III and IV) were simultaneously amplified from leaves and five types (I, II, V, VI, VII) from roots with a minimum investment of time and experimental work. cDNAs II, III and IV encode chloroplastic isoforms as deduced by the presence of chloroplastic GS-specific features in their sequences. The rest of cDNAs codifies cytosolic isoforms. Using cDNA-specific probes and primers, homologous sequences to all GS cDNAs amplified from cv. Peredovic, except to cDNAs III and IV, were detected in the inbred line R41. This result strongly suggests that the three cDNAs for chloroplastic isoform are allelic sequences from the same locus, and since cDNA type IV contains sequences derived from cDNAs II and III, it indicates a recombinational origin. The results presented are consistent with the existence of a GS gene family in sunflower with at least five members. Four of them, named ggs1.1 to ggs1.4, codify for the cytosolic isoforms (cDNAs I, V, VI and VII). A fifth member, named ggs2, from which three allelic sequences (cDNAs II, III and IV) have been cloned, encodes the chloroplastic isoform. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.