Dietary folic Acid promotes survival of foxp3+ regulatory T cells in the colon

Dietary compounds as well as commensal microbiota contribute to the generation of a unique gut environment. In this study, we report that dietary folic acid (FA) is required for the maintenance of Foxp3(+) regulatory T cells (Tregs) in the colon. Deficiency of FA in the diet resulted in marked reduction of Foxp3(+) Tregs selectively in the colon. Blockade of folate receptor 4 and treatment with methotrexate, which inhibits folate metabolic pathways, decreased colonic Foxp3(+) Tregs. Compared with splenic Tregs, colonic Tregs were more activated to proliferate vigorously and were highly sensitive to apoptosis. In colonic Tregs derived from mice fed with a FA-deficient diet, expression of anti-apoptotic molecules Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL was severely decreased. A general reduction of peripheral Tregs was induced by a neutralizing Ab against IL-2, but a further decrease by additional FA deficiency was observed exclusively in the colon. Mice fed with an FA-deficient diet exhibited higher susceptibility to intestinal inflammation. These findings reveal the previously unappreciated role of dietary FA in promotion of survival of Foxp3(+) Tregs that are in a highly activated state in the colon.     

Preparation and characterization of EGCase I, applicable to the comprehensive analysis of GSLs, using a rhodococcal expression system

Endoglycoceramidase (EGCase) is a glycosidase capable of hydrolyzing the β -glycosidic linkage between the oligosaccharides and ceramides of glycosphingolipids (GSLs). Three molecular species of EGCase differing in specificity were found in the culture fluid of Rhodococcus equi (formerly Rhodococcus sp. M-750) and designated EGCase I, II, and III. This study describes the molecular cloning of EGCase I and characterization of the recombinant enzyme, which was highly expressed in a rhodococcal expression system using Rhodococcus erythropolis. Kinetic analysis revealed the turnover number (k(cat)) (k(cat)) of the recombinant EGCase I to be 22- and 1,200-fold higher than that of EGCase II toward GM1a and Gb3Cer, respectively, although the K(m) of both enzymes was almost the same for these substrates. Comparison of the three-dimensional structure of EGCase I (model) and EGCase II (crystal) indicated that a flexible loop hangs over the catalytic cleft of EGCase II but not EGCase I. Deletion of the loop from EGCase II increased the k(cat) of the mutant enzyme, suggesting that the loop is a critical factor affecting the turnover of substrates and products in the catalytic region. Recombinant EGCase I exhibited broad specificity and good reaction efficiency compared with EGCase II, making EGCase I well-suited to a comprehensive analysis of GSLs.     

Characterization of 1-(2-[18F] fluoro-3-pyridyl)-4-(2-isopropyl-1-oxo- isoindoline-5-yl)-5-methyl-1H-1,2,3-triazole, a PET ligand for imaging the metabotropic glutamate receptor type 1 in rat and monkey brains

Neurovascular degeneration contributes to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Because erythropoietin (EPO) promotes endothelial regeneration, we investigated the therapeutic effects of EPO in animal models of AD. In aged Tg2576 mice, EPO receptors (EPORs) were expressed in the cortex and hippocampus. Tg2576 mice were treated with daily injection of EPO (5000 IU/kg/day) for 5 days. At 14 days, EPO improved contextual memory as measured by fear-conditioning test. EPO enhanced endothelial proliferation and the level of synaptophysin expression in the brain. EPO also increased capillary density, and decreased the level of the receptor for advanced glycation endproducts (RAGE) in the brain, while decreasing in the amount of amyloid plaque and amyloid-β (Aβ). In cultured human endothelial cells, EPO enhanced angiogenesis and suppressed the expression of the RAGE. These results show that EPO improves memory and ameliorates endothelial degeneration induced by Aβ in AD models. This pre-clinical evidence suggests that EPO may be useful for the treatment of AD.     

The highly conserved arginine residues at positions 76 through 78 of influenza A virus matrix protein M1 play an important role in viral replication by affecting the intracellular localization of M1

Influenza A virus matrix protein (M1) plays an important role in virus assembly and budding. Besides a well-characterized basic amino acid-rich nuclear localization signal region at positions 101 to 105, M1 contains another basic amino acid stretch at positions 76-78 that is highly conserved among influenza A and B viruses, suggesting the importance of this stretch. To understand the role of these residues in virus replication, we mutated them to either lysine (K), alanine (A), or aspartic acid (D). We could generate viruses possessing either single or combination substitutions with K or single substitution with A at any of these positions, but not those with double substitutions with A or a single substitution with D. Viruses with the single substitution with A exhibited slower growth and had lower nucleoprotein/M1 quantitative ratio in virions compared to the wild-type virus. In cells infected with a virus possessing the single substitution with A at position 77 or 78 (R77A or R78A, respectively), the mutated M1 localized in patches at the cell periphery where nucleoprotein and hemagglutinin colocalized more often than the wild-type did. Transmission electron microscopy showed that virus possessing M1 R77A or R78A, but not the wild-type virus, was present in vesicular structures, indicating a defect in virus assembly and/or budding. The M1 mutations that did not support virus generation exhibited an aberrant M1 intracellular localization and affected protein incorporation into virus-like particles. These results indicate that the basic amino acid stretch of M1 plays a critical role in influenza virus replication.     

Structural basis for broad detection of genogroup II noroviruses by a monoclonal antibody that binds to a site occluded in the viral particle

Human noroviruses are genetically and antigenically highly divergent. Monoclonal antibodies raised in mice against one kind of norovirus virus-like particle (VLP), however, were found to have broad recognition. In this study, we present the crystal structure of the antigen-binding fragment (Fab) for one of these broadly reactive monoclonal antibodies, 5B18, in complex with the capsid-protruding domain from a genogroup II genotype 10 (GII.10) norovirus at 3.3-Å resolution and, also, the cryo-electron microscopy structure of the GII.10 VLP at ∼10-Å resolution. The GII.10 VLP structure was more similar in overall architecture to the GV.1 murine norovirus virion than to the prototype GI.1 human norovirus VLP, with the GII.10 protruding domain raised ∼15 Å off the shell domain and rotated ∼40° relative to the GI.1 protruding domain. In the crystal structure, the 5B18 Fab bound to a highly conserved region of the protruding domain. Based on the VLP structure, this region is involved in interactions with other regions of the capsid and is buried in the virus particle. Despite the occluded nature of the recognized epitope in the VLP structure, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) binding suggested that the 5B18 antibody was able to capture intact VLPs. Together, the results provide evidence that the norovirus particle is capable of extreme conformational flexibility, which may allow for antibody recognition of conserved surfaces that would otherwise be buried on intact particles.     

Comparative analysis of methanogen diversity in the rumen of crossbred buffalo and cattle in the Philippines by using the functional gene mcrA

Comparative analyses of methanogen diversity in the rumen of crossbred buffalo and cattle fed the same diet in the Philippines was performed by cloning the methyl coenzyme M reductase A (mcrA) gene. The cattle and buffalo libraries consisted of 50 clones each. Comparative analysis of the amino acid sequence revealed that these 2 libraries differed significantly (P?<?0.01). The deduced amino acid sequences of the clones were classified into 9 operational taxonomic units (OTUs) in buffalo and 11 OTUs in cattle. Sequence similarity between the clones and known cultured methanogens ranged from 86 to 97?% for buffalo and 84 to 99?% for cattle. Methanobrevibacter species were predominant in buffalo (64?% of the clones), and an unknown mcrA was predominant in cattle (52?% of the clones). A large number of clones with low similarity to cultivated methanogens was observed in both buffalo and cattle, suggesting the presence of an unknown methanogen species in their rumen.     

Inhibition of high glucose-induced VEGF and ICAM-1 expression in human retinal pigment epithelium cells by targeting ILK with small interference RNA

The aim of this study was to investigate the change of Integrin-linked kinase (ILK) expression of human retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells in response to high glucose, and the effect of targeting ILK with small interference RNA (siRNA) on the high glucose-induced expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1). The ILK mRNA and protein expression in human RPE cells were analyzed with RT-PCR and western blot after exposure to 5.5, 30, 40, 50 mM glucose, or 5.5 mM glucose + 45.5 mM mannitol for 48 h. The expression of VEGF and ICAM-1 was also determined. Cells were treated with ILK siRNA, to determine the effect of ILK on VEGF and ICAM-1 expression following treatment with high glucose. High concentrations of glucose significantly up-regulated ILK mRNA and protein expression, and the ILK expression increased along with the glucose concentration. The changes of VEGF and ICAM-1 expression were similar to that of ILK expression. Knocking down ILK gene expression with siRNA inhibited the elevation of VEGF and ICAM-1 induced by high glucose treatment. These results suggested that ILK was involved in the response of RPE cells to high glucose and may therefore play a role in the pathogenesis of diabetic ophthalmology.     

Lipopolysaccharide-induced Overproduction of Nitric Oxide and Overexpression of iNOS and Interleukin-1β Proteins in Zinc-deficient Rats

Zinc deficiency leads to decreased cellular immune responses. The overproduction of nitrogen species derived from inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), its enzyme, and interleukine-1 beta (IL-1β), and inflammatory cytokine have been implicated in immune responses. The goal of this study was to investigate the effects of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced changes in NO metabolites, iNOS, and IL-1β protein expression in the lungs of zinc-deficient rats. Male Sprague–Dawley rats (body weight, 100 g) were divided into two groups and were fed either a zinc-deficient diet (ZnD) or a zinc-containing diet (Cont). After 4 weeks on these diets, rats received a 10-mg/kg dose of LPS injected via the tail vein and were then maintained for an additional 72 h. To determine total NO concentrations in the blood, serum zinc concentration, iNOS protein expression, IL-1β, and iNOS immunohistochemistry, blood and lung samples were obtained at pre-LPS injection, 5, 24, and 72 h after injection. Total NO levels were significantly increased at 5, at 24, and at 72 h after LPS injection compared with pre-LPS injection level in ZnD group; significant changes in total NO levels was elevated at 5 h from at pre-LPS level but not significant changes from basal level at 24 and 72 h in the control group. Based on western blot analyses and immunohistochemistry, clear bands indicating iNOS and IL-1β protein expression and iNOS antibody-stained inflammatory cells were detected at 5 and 24 h in the ZnD group and 5 h in the Cont group, not observed at 24 and 72 h in the control group. These results suggest that zinc deficiency induces overexpression of iNOS and IL-1β proteins from inflammatory cells around the alveolar blood vessels, resulting in overproduction of total NO and persisted inflammatory response in the zinc-deficient rat lung. Taken together, overexpression of LPS-induced iNOS, overproduction of iNOS-derived NO, and overexpression of IL-1β may induce nitrosative and oxidative stresses in the lung, and these stresses may be involved low immunity of zinc deficiency states.