Soluble oligomers of amyloid-β peptide disrupt membrane trafficking of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionic acid receptor contributing to early synapse dysfunction

β-Amyloid (Aβ), a peptide generated from the amyloid precursor protein, is widely believed to underlie the pathophysiology of Alzheimer disease (AD). Emerging evidences suggest that soluble Aβ oligomers adversely affect synaptic function, leading to cognitive failure associated with AD. The Aβ-induced synaptic dysfunction has been attributed to the synaptic removal of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionic acid (AMPA) receptors (AMPARs). However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the loss of AMPAR induced by Aβ at synapses are largely unknown. In this study we have examined the effect of Aβ oligomers on phosphorylated GluA1 at serine 845, a residue that plays an essential role in the trafficking of AMPARs toward extrasynaptic sites and the subsequent delivery to synapses during synaptic plasticity events. We found that Aβ oligomers reduce basal levels of Ser-845 phosphorylation and surface expression of AMPARs affecting AMPAR subunit composition. Aβ-induced GluA1 dephosphorylation and reduced receptor surface levels are mediated by an increase in calcium influx into neurons through ionotropic glutamate receptors and activation of the calcium-dependent phosphatase calcineurin. Moreover, Aβ oligomers block the extrasynaptic delivery of AMPARs induced by chemical synaptic potentiation. In addition, reduced levels of total and phosphorylated GluA1 are associated with initial spatial memory deficits in a transgenic mouse model of AD. These findings indicate that Aβ oligomers could act as a synaptic depressor affecting the mechanisms involved in the targeting of AMPARs to the synapses during early stages of the disease.     

Arsenic Exposure Increases Monocyte Adhesion to the Vascular Endothelium,a Pro-Atherogenic Mechanism

Epidemiological studies have shown that arsenic exposure increases atherosclerosis, but the mechanisms underlying this relationship are unknown. Monocytes, macrophages and platelets play an important role in the initiation of atherosclerosis. Circulating monocytes and macrophages bind to the activated vascular endothelium and migrate into the sub-endothelium, where they become lipid-laden foam cells. This process can be facilitated by platelets, which favour monocyte recruitment to the lesion. Thus, we assessed the effects of low-to-moderate arsenic exposure on monocyte adhesion to endothelial cells, platelet activation and platelet-monocyte interactions. We observed that arsenic induces human monocyte adhesion to endothelial cells in vitro. These findings were confirmed ex vivo using a murine organ culture system at concentrations as low as 10 ppb. We found that both cell types need to be exposed to arsenic to maximize monocyte adhesion to the endothelium. This adhesion process is specific to monocyte/endothelium interactions. Hence, no effect of arsenic on platelet activation or platelet/leukocyte interaction was observed. We found that arsenic increases adhesion of mononuclear cells via increased CD29 binding to VCAM-1, an adhesion molecule found on activated endothelial cells. Similar results were observed in vivo, where arsenic-exposed mice exhibit increased VCAM-1 expression on endothelial cells and increased CD29 on circulating monocytes. Interestingly, expression of adhesion molecules and increased binding can be inhibited by antioxidants in vitro and in vivo. Together, these data suggest that arsenic might enhance atherosclerosis by increasing monocyte adhesion to endothelial cells, a process that is inhibited by antioxidants.     

Lipin 2 Binds Phosphatidic Acid by the Electrostatic Hydrogen Bond Switch Mechanism Independent of Phosphorylation

Lipin 2 is a phosphatidic acid phosphatase (PAP) responsible for the penultimate step of triglyceride synthesis and dephosphorylation of phosphatidic acid (PA) to generate diacylglycerol. The lipin family of PA phosphatases is composed of lipins 1–3, which are members of the conserved haloacid dehalogenase superfamily. Although genetic alteration of LPIN2 in humans is known to cause Majeed syndrome, little is known about the biochemical regulation of its PAP activity. Here, in an attempt to gain a better general understanding of the biochemical nature of lipin 2, we have performed kinetic and phosphorylation analyses. We provide evidence that lipin 2, like lipin 1, binds PA via the electrostatic hydrogen bond switch mechanism but has a lower rate of catalysis. Like lipin 1, lipin 2 is highly phosphorylated, and we identified 15 phosphosites. However, unlike lipin 1, the phosphorylation of lipin 2 is not induced by insulin signaling nor is it sensitive to inhibition of the mammalian target of rapamycin. Importantly, phosphorylation of lipin 2 does not negatively regulate either membrane binding or PAP activity. This suggests that lipin 2 functions as a constitutively active PA phosphatase in stark contrast to the high degree of phosphorylation-mediated regulation of lipin 1. This knowledge of lipin 2 regulation is important for a deeper understanding of how the lipin family functions with respect to lipid synthesis and, more generally, as an example of how the membrane environment around PA can influence its effector proteins.     

Long‐term survival and diversification of an endemic Melitaea species in mountains of Iran and adjacent areas

Disjunct distribution patterns regularly resulted in the separation of different genetic lineages in glacial refugia. Recent patterns of survival and expansion have been often revealed by climatic niche modelling. We used the combination of genetic markers, geometric morphometry and climatic niche modelling to clear up the taxonomy and reconstruct the potential range of an endemic Iranian, taxonomically disputed Melitaea species in climatically different epochs. Our results show that this species (Melitaea abbas Gross and Ebert 1975, comb. n. = M. zagrosi Tóth and Varga syn. nova) is clearly separated from all taxa of the Melitaea phoebe species group and only occurs in Iran and Azerbaijan but were also predicted for some adjacent regions. Molecular markers and distribution modelling show consistently that this species should have had a long‐term survival in this area, and its range could have been slightly larger during the last glacial maximum than currently. Based on the studied molecular markers, three main groups in M. abbas can be recognized: those of steppic area of Azerbaijan, western Iran and northeastern Iran. Each group is characterized by own mitochondrial haplotypes, but also a high level of genetic diversity appears in the central part of the distribution area (Zagros Mts.).     

Exposure of human intestinal epithelial cells and primary human hepatocytes to trypsin-like serine protease inhibitors with potential antiviral effect

Human intestinal epithelial cell line-6 (HIEC-6) cells and primary human hepatocytes (PHHs) were treated with 3-amidinophenylalanine-derived inhibitors of trypsin-like serine proteases for 24 hours. It was proven that treatment with MI-1900 and MI-1907 was tolerated up to 50 μM in HIEC-6. These inhibitors did not cause elevations in extracellular H₂O₂ levels and in the concentrations of interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-8 and did not alter occludin distribution in HIEC-6. It was also found that MI-1900 and MI-1907 up to 50 μM did not affect cell viability, IL-6 and IL-8 and occludin levels of PHH. Based on our findings, these inhibitors could be safely applicable at 50 μM in HIEC-6 and in PHH; however, redox status was disturbed in case of PHH. Moreover, it has recently been demonstrated that MI-1900 prevents the replication and spread of the new SARS-CoV-2 in infected Calu-3 cells, most-likely via an inhibition of the membrane-bound host protease TMPRSS2.     

Binding of malate dehydrogenase and NADH channelling to complex I

As previously reported, mitochondrial malate dehydrogenase (MDH) binds to purified complex I of the electron transport system. With conditions used in previous reports, MDH binds even more extensively, but probably predominantly non-specifically, to the matrix side of the inner mitochondrial membrane of submitochodrial particles (SMP). Herein we report experimental conditions for highly specific binding of malate dehydrogenase to complex I within SMP. These conditions permit us to demonstrate NADH channelling from malate dehydrogenase to complex I using the completing reaction test. This test, though not ideal for all situations, has several advantages over the enzyme buffering test previously used. These advantages should facilitate further studies elucidating NADH channeling to complex I from MDH and other dehydrogenases. Independent evidence of NADH channelling to the electron transport chain and the potential advantages of substrate channelling in general are also discussed. Substrate channelling from MDH in particular may be especially beneficial because of the unfavourable equilibrium and kinetics of this enzyme reaction.     

A novel thermostable alpha-galactosidase from the thermophilic fungus Thermomyces lanuginosus CBS 395.62/b: purification and characterization

High levels of an extracellular alpha-galactosidase are produced by the thermophilic fungus Thermomyces lanuginosus CBS 395.62/b when grown in submerse culture and induced by sucrose. The enzyme was purified 114-fold from the culture supernatant by (NH(4))(2)SO(4) fractionation, and by chromatographical steps including Sepharose CL-6B gel filtration, DEAE-Sepharose FF anion-exchange, Q-Sepharose FF anion-exchange and Superose 12 gel filtration. The purified enzyme exhibits apparent homogeneity as judged by sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and iso-electric focusing (IEF). The native molecular weight of the monomeric alpha-galactosidase is 93 kDa with an isoelectric point of 3.9. The enzyme displays a pH and temperature optimum of 5-5.5 and 65 degrees C, respectively. The purified enzyme retains more than 90% of its activity at 45 degrees C in a pH range from 5.5 to 9.0. The enzyme proves to be a glycoprotein and its carbohydrate content is 5.3%. Kinetic parameters were determined for the substrates p-nitrophenyl-alpha-galactopyranoside, raffinose and stachyose and very similar K(m) values of 1.13 mM, 1.61 mM and 1.17 mM were found. Mn(++) ions activates enzyme activity, whereas inhibitory effects can be observed with Ca(++), Zn(++) and Hg(++). Five min incubation at 65 degrees with 10 mM Ag(+) results in complete inactivation of the purified alpha-galactosidase. Amino acid sequence alignment of N-terminal sequence data allows the alpha-galactosidase from Thermomyces lanuginosus to be classified in glycosyl hydrolase family 36.     

Cariprazine (RGH-188), a potent D3/D2 dopamine receptor partial agonist, binds to dopamine D3 receptors in vivo and shows antipsychotic-like and procognitive effects in rodents

We investigated the in vivo effects of orally administered cariprazine (RGH-188; trans-N-{4-[2-[4-(2,3-dichlorophenyl)-piperazin-1-yl]-ethyl]-cyclohexyl}-N′,N′-dimethyl-urea), a D₃/D₂ dopamine receptor partial agonist with ∼10-fold preference for the D₃ receptor. Oral bioavailability of cariprazine at a dose of 1 mg/kg in rats was 52% with peak plasma concentrations of 91 ng/mL. Cariprazine 10 mg/kg had good blood-brain barrier penetration, with a brain/plasma AUC ratio of 7.6:1. In rats, cariprazine showed dose-dependent in vivo displacement of [³H](+)-PHNO, a dopamine D₃ receptor-preferring radiotracer, in the D₃ receptor-rich region of cerebellar lobules 9 and 10. Its potent inhibition of apomorphine-induced climbing in mice (ED₅₀ = 0.27 mg/kg) was sustained for 8 h. Cariprazine blocked amphetamine-induced hyperactivity (ED₅₀ = 0.12 mg/kg) and conditioned avoidance response (CAR) (ED₅₀ = 0.84 mg/kg) in rats, and inhibited the locomotor-stimulating effects of the noncompetitive NMDA antagonists MK-801 (ED₅₀ = 0.049 mg/kg) and phencyclidine (ED₅₀ = 0.09 mg/kg) in mice and rats, respectively. It reduced novelty-induced motor activity of mice (ED₅₀ = 0.11 mg/kg) and rats (ED₅₀ = 0.18 mg/kg) with a maximal effect of 70% in both species. Cariprazine produced no catalepsy in rats at up to 100-fold dose of its CAR inhibitory ED₅₀ value. Cariprazine 0.02-0.08 mg/kg significantly improved the learning performance of scopolamine-treated rats in a water-labyrinth learning paradigm. Though risperidone, olanzapine, and aripiprazole showed antipsychotic-like activity in many of these assays, they were less active against phencyclidine and more cataleptogenic than cariprazine, and had no significant effect in the learning task. The distinct in vivo profile of cariprazine may be due to its higher affinity and in vivo binding to D₃ receptors versus currently marketed typical and atypical antipsychotics.     

Selective perturbation of the myosin recovery stroke by point mutations at the base of the lever arm affects ATP hydrolysis and phosphate release

After ATP binding the myosin head undergoes a large structural rearrangement called the recovery stroke. This transition brings catalytic residues into place to enable ATP hydrolysis, and at the same time it causes a swing of the myosin lever arm into a primed state, which is a prerequisite for the power stroke. By introducing point mutations into a subdomain interface at the base of the myosin lever arm at positions Lys(84) and Arg(704), we caused modulatory changes in the equilibrium constant of the recovery stroke, which we could accurately resolve using the fluorescence signal of single tryptophan Dictyostelium myosin II constructs. Our results shed light on a novel role of the recovery stroke: fine-tuning of this reversible equilibrium influences the functional properties of myosin through controlling the effective rates of ATP hydrolysis and phosphate release.