Characterization of Plant Epidermal Lens Effects by a Surface Replica Technique

Optical replicas of leaf surfaces were made for characterizingthe lens properties of individual epidermal cells. Using a dentallatex, moulds were made of leaf surfaces and subsequently usedto produce agarose replicas. The replicas focused light in amanner similar to intact epidermal cells and it was possibleto measure both focal lengths and intensifications within leafreplicas of Thermopsis montana, Mahonia repens, and Smilacinastellata which had epidermal cells of different diameter. Focallengths ranged from 74—130 µm which indicated thatlight was concentrated within the underlying photosynthetictissues of these leaves. Focal intensifications were measuredsensiometrically and were 1.5 for T. montana and 2-6 for theother species. These values compare favourably with calculatedfocal lengths and measurements taken from isolated epidermallayers. The results indicate that the epidermis can concentratelight within the leaf to amounts well in excess of ambient light.Furthermore, the replicas faithfully reproduced fine anatomicaldetails from a wide variety of leaves and they provide a non-destructiveway to reproduce surface characteristics for anatomical andphysiological studies.     

The Use of Quantitative Electron Microscopy in the Study of Lipid Composition of Membranes

It is argued that a knowledge of the extent of individual cellmembrane systems is of crucial importance to the understandingof results obtained from lipid analysis of tissues and isolatedmembrane systems. In this preliminary study stereological methodshave been applied to electron micrographs of cucumber leavesat different stages of expansion, to assess the area of eachmembrane system present. The equivalent phospholipid-proteinmembrane area for the largest leaf was found to be 500 x 10⁹µm² compared with a value of 961 x 10⁹ µm² calculatedfrom published data on the phospholipid content of a similarleaf. Possible applications of quantitative electron microscopyto certain lipid studies are reviewed and it is concluded thatthis approach should be more widely adopted.     

The Histophysiology of the Prolactin Cell in Non-Mammalian Vertebrates

With the exception of the agnathan fishes, a prolactin cellhas been identified in all vertebrates in which it has beensought. This review examines the structure of the prolactin-producingpituitary cell in non-mammalian vertebrates, the manner in whichit responds to natural and artificial stimuli, and its controlby neural and humoral factors. Fundamental similarities anddifferences are described in an attempt to understand betterits method of operation. Given our present state of knowledge, there is, among all theapparent diversity, a similarity in the basic structure andmorphological response of this cell in teleosts, amphibians,reptiles, and birds. One can identify and speak with relativecertainty about a specific adenohypophysial cell called a "prolactincell." More profound differences may be found at the level ofcontrol mechanisms, chemistry of the hormone(s), and the natureof receptivity and response of target tissues. It appears that although there are basic similarities in thedesign of the prolactin cell, the systems that control its activitiesmay differ and the similar products produced by the cell maybe used toward different ends.     

A spatially explicit analysis to extrapolate carbon fluxes in upland tundra where permafrost is thawing

One of the most important changes in high‐latitude ecosystems in response to climatic warming may be the thawing of permafrost soil. In upland tundra, the thawing of ice‐rich permafrost can create localized surface subsidence called thermokarst, which may change the soil environment and influence ecosystem carbon release and uptake. We established an intermediate scale (a scale in between point chamber measurements and eddy covariance footprint) ecosystem carbon flux study in Alaskan tundra where permafrost thaw and thermokarst development had been occurring for several decades. The main goal of our study was to examine how dynamic ecosystem carbon fluxes [gross primary production (GPP), ecosystem respiration (R_eco), and net ecosystem exchange (NEE)] relate to ecosystem variables that incorporate the structural and edaphic changes that co‐occur with permafrost thaw and thermokarst development. We then examined how these measured ecosystem carbon fluxes responded to upscaling. For both spatially extensive measurements made intermittently during the peak growing season and intensive measurements made over the entire growing season, ecosystem variables including degree of surface subsidence, thaw depth, and aboveground biomass were selected in a mixed model selection procedure as the ‘best’ predictors of GPP, R_eco, and NEE. Variables left out of the model (often as a result of autocorrelation) included soil temperature, moisture, and normalized difference vegetation index. These results suggest that the structural changes (surface subsidence, thaw depth, aboveground biomass) that integrate multiple effects of permafrost thaw can be useful components of models used to estimate ecosystem carbon exchange across thermokarst affected landscapes.     

Changes in species richness and composition in European acidic grasslands over the past 70 years: the contribution of cumulative atmospheric nitrogen deposition

Our study investigates the negative impact of nitrogen (N) deposition on species richness in acidic grasslands, based on a temporal comparison of vegetation data spanning a period of almost 70 years. We compiled a large data base of plots assigned to the Violion caninae grassland type, composed of managed, but unfertilized semi-natural grasslands on nutrient-poor, acidic soils. In total 1114 plots, mainly from Great Britain, the Netherlands and Germany, were compiled, dating back to 1939. Environmental site information included geographical and soil (mean Ellenberg values) variables as well as estimates of cumulative N and sulphur (S) deposition since 1939. Statistical analyses were carried out separately for the data subsets from the three regions. In all regions, the vegetation differentiation was mainly related to soil acidity and nutrient availability, as well as to the year of sampling and the cumulative amounts of N and S deposition. Plot-species richness of vascular plants and bryophytes (analysed for Great Britain only) decreased with time and analyses suggest these are affected by various factors, notably soil pH, but also latitude and cumulative N deposition. The latter explained more of the variation in species number than the year of sampling and cumulative S deposition, which supports the interpretation that the decline in species richness is mainly caused by increasing N availability and less by altered management and soil acidification. For Great Britain and Germany, cumulative N deposition showed a strong negative relationship with several biodiversity measures, especially the proportion of dicots, whereas it was positively related to the proportion of grass species. In general, our results give temporal evidence for the negative effect of N deposition on species richness in semi-natural vegetation.     

Albedo estimates for land surface models and support for a new paradigm based on foliage nitrogen concentration

Vegetation albedo is a critical component of the Earth's climate system, yet efforts to evaluate and improve albedo parameterizations in climate models have lagged relative to other aspects of model development. Here, we calculated growing season albedos for deciduous and evergreen forests, crops, and grasslands based on over 40 site‐years of data from the AmeriFlux network and compared them with estimates presently used in the land surface formulations of a variety of climate models. Generally, the albedo estimates used in land surface models agreed well with this data compilation. However, a variety of models using fixed seasonal estimates of albedo overestimated the growing season albedo of northerly evergreen trees. In contrast, climate models that rely on a common two‐stream albedo submodel provided accurate predictions of boreal needle‐leaf evergreen albedo but overestimated grassland albedos. Inverse analysis showed that parameters of the two‐stream model were highly correlated. Consistent with recent observations based on remotely sensed albedo, the AmeriFlux dataset demonstrated a tight linear relationship between canopy albedo and foliage nitrogen concentration (for forest vegetation: albedo=0.01+0.071%N, r²=0.91; forests, grassland, and maize: albedo=0.02+0.067%N, r²=0.80). However, this relationship saturated at the higher nitrogen concentrations displayed by soybean foliage. We developed similar relationships between a foliar parameter used in the two‐stream albedo model and foliage nitrogen concentration. These nitrogen‐based relationships can serve as the basis for a new approach to land surface albedo modeling that simplifies albedo estimation while providing a link to other important ecosystem processes.     

The production‐ecological sustainability of cassava,sugarcane and sweet sorghum cultivation for bioethanol in Mozambique

We present an approach for providing quantitative insight into the production‐ecological sustainability of biofuel feedstock production systems. The approach is based on a simple crop‐soil model and was used for assessing feedstock from current and improved production systems of cassava for bioethanol. Assessments were performed for a study area in Mozambique, a country considered promising for biomass production. Our focus is on the potential role of smallholders in the production of feedstock for biofuels. We take cassava as the crop for this purpose and compare it with feedstock production on plantations using sugarcane, sweet sorghum and cassava as benchmarks. Production‐ecological sustainability was defined by seven indicators related to resource‐use efficiency, soil quality, net energy production and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Results indicate that of the assessed systems, sugarcane performed better than cassava, although it requires substantial water for irrigation. Targeted use of nutrient inputs improved sustainability of smallholder cassava. Cassava production systems on more fertile soils were more sustainable than those on less fertile soils; the latter required more external inputs for achieving the same output, affecting most indicators negatively and reducing the feasibility for smallholders. Cassava and sweet sorghum performed similarly. Cassava production requires much more labour per hectare than production of sugarcane or sweet sorghum. Production of bioethanol feedstock on cultivated lands was more sustainable and had potential for carbon sequestration, avoiding GHG emissions from clearing natural vegetation if new land is opened.     

全北区古近纪的鸟类动物群(英文)

中国的较高纬度地区有着丰富且交通无阻的含化石地层,故在全北区生物地理的研究中占有独特的位置。它提供了欧洲和北美新生代早期沉积之间的联系。这些动物群中所含丰富多样的鸟类动物群,直到目前才得到足够的关注。早始新世时,在全球范围内,甚至在高纬度地区,都遍布着热带森林;在怀俄明州的绿河湖区,还发现了棕榈叶的化石。因而,德国Messel的鸟类动物群表现出与非洲热带森林较近的亲缘关系,怀俄明州绿河的鸟类动物群与南美洲热带地区关系密切,也就不足为奇了。实际上,古近纪的标志性特征是温暖潮湿的生态系统在全球广泛分布,削弱了高纬度地区对生物分布所起的屏障作用。晚始新世-渐新世全球温度的下降,致使新近纪加剧了大陆隔离并促成了生态变化,进而导致了现代鸟类在分类上的多样性。