Pollination biology of the Proteaceae in Australia and southern Africa

Proteaceae are most diverse in southern Africa and Australia, especially in the south-western portions of these regions. Most genera have some species in flower at all times of the year, although generally there is a preponderance of species that flower between late winter and early summer. The one genus that is an exception to this generalization is Banksia, which either has approximately the same percentage of species in flower at various times of the year (southwestern Australia) or peaks in autumn (southeastern Australia). Within particular communities, opportunities for hybridization among congeneric species are minimized by staggered flowering times, different pollen vectors and/or various incompatibility mechanisms. Birds, mammals and arthropods have been identified as visitors to the inflorescences of many Proteaceae. The most common avian visitors to the majority of genera in Australia are honeyeaters, although lorikeets, silvereyes and approximately 40 other species sometimes may be important. Sugarbirds and sunbirds are seen most frequently at inflorescences of Protea, Leucospermum and Mimetes in southern Africa, although they rarely visit other genera. In most cases, avian visitors forage in a manner that permits the acquisition and transfer of pollen. Limited evidence supports the hypothesis that birds are selective in their choice of inflorescences, responding to morphological and/or colour changes and usually visiting those inflorescences that offer the greatest nectar rewards. Arthropods may be equally selective, although it is possible that only the larger moths, bees and beetles are important pollinators, even for those plant species that rely entirely on arthropods for pollen transfer. Mammals are pollen vectors for some Proteaceae, especially those that have geoflorous and/or cryptic inflorescences. In Australia, small marsupials may be the most important mammalian pollinators, although rodents fill this niche in at least some southern African habitats. All but two genera of Proteaceae are hermaphroditic and protandrous, the exceptions being the dioecious southern African genera Aulax and Leucadendron. For hermaphroditic species, the timing of visits by animals to inflorescences is such that they not only acquire pollen from freshly opened flowers but also brush against pollen presenters and stigmas of others that have lost self-pollen and become receptive. Birds and insects (and probably mammals) generally forage in such a way as to facilitate both outcrossing and selfing. Some species are self-compatible, although many require outcrossing if viable seed is to be formed. Regardless of which animals are the major pollen vectors, fruit set is low relative to the number of flowers available, especially in Australian habitats. Functional andromonoecy of the majority of flowers is advanced as the major cause of poor fruit set. The pollination biology and breeding systems of Australian and southern African Proteaceae resemble one another in many ways, partly because of their common ancestry, but also due to convergence. Divergence is less obvious, apart from the dichotomy between dioecious and hermaphroditic genera, and differences in the levels of seed set for Australian and African species. Future studies should concentrate on identifying the most important pollinators for various Proteaceae, the manner in which their visits are integrated with floral development and factors responsible for limiting fruit set.     

Modulation of antigen-induced T cell proliferation by alpha 2M-trypsin complexes

Proteinase-complexed alpha 2-macroglobulin (alpha 2M) could be shown to interfere with T cell proliferation in response to antigen presented by autologous antigen-pulsed monocytes (M phi) (antigen-induced M phi-T cell interaction, MTI). Addition of alpha 2M-trypsin (alpha 2M X T) complexes to cultures of T cells and antigen-pulsed M phi led to a dose-dependent decrease of T cell proliferation (up to 91% inhibition of the T cell response), whereas the same concentrations of free (native) alpha 2M had no effect on antigen-induced MTI. The observed interference with MTI could be attributed to residual enzymic activity of the alpha 2M X T complex. Addition of aprotinin, a low Mr protein proteinase inhibitor able to penetrate to the enzyme entrapped within the alpha 2M molecule and thus bind to and inactivate the enzyme's active site, resulted in a reversal of the alpha 2M X T-induced biological effect. Inactivation of the enzyme's active site within alpha 2M X T was monitored by a decrease in the hydrolytic activity of the complex. Kinetic studies (addition of alpha 2M X T 24 to 48 hr after culture onset was shown to be still inhibitory) indicated an effect at the level of the T cell or its mediators, but an overnight incubation of T cells with alpha 2M X T did not alter these cells' capacity to proliferate in response to an antigenic stimulus. An additional effect of alpha 2M X T on the antigen-presenting cell cannot be ruled out at present. However, alpha 2M X T did not alter the percentage of monocytes expressing HLA-DR, -DP, and -DQ or interfere with interleukin 1 release if added to M phi at concentrations that significantly inhibited MTI. Furthermore, incubation of M phi with alpha 2M X T for 1 hr before antigen pulsing had no effect on the M phi antigen presenting capacity.     

Changes in plasma thyroid hormones, luteinizing hormone (LH), estradiol, progesterone and corticosterone of laying hens during a forced molt

1. Circulating concentrations of iodothyronines, luteinizing hormone(LH), estradiol(E2), progesterone and corticosterone were measured in hens before, during, and after a forced molt induced by fasting. 2. Corticosterone increased at the onset of molt, peaked at the maximal molt and returned to pre- and post-molt levels. LH, E2 and progesterone declined during the molt, and the decline was coincident with the cessation of egg production. 3. Thyroxine(T4), triiodothyronine (T3) and reverse triiodothyronine(rT3) increased during the molt. The increases of T4 and T3 were not abolished even if the forced molt was conducted in mild weather.     

Modification by azocombination of the catalytic properties of ribonucleases

Using pancreatic RNAase and RNAase from Act. rimosus as models, the effect of modification by azocombination on the catalytic properties of enzymes were studied. It was shown that RNAases binding to soluble dextran did not cause any significant changes in their major catalytic properties, when polymeric RNA was used as a substrate. At the same time, the physico-chemical properties of the modified enzymes may result in changes in the catalytic properties in a reaction with low molecular weight substrates. Evidence for this observation can be obtained from the increase in the synthetic activity of modified pancreatic RNAase as compared to the hydrolase activity in the dinucleotide synthesis reaction.     

The rfaD gene codes for ADP-L-glycero-D-mannoheptose-6-epimerase. An enzyme required for lipopolysaccharide core biosynthesis

The rfaD gene product, ADP-L-glycero-D-mannoheptose-6-epimerase, is necessary for the conversion of ADP-D-glycero-D-mannoheptose to ADP-L-glycero-D-mannoheptose. The nucleotide ADP-D-glycero-D-mannoheptose accumulates in rfaD mutant strains. Two chimeric colicin E1 plasmids carrying the coding sequence of the rfaD+ locus have been selected and shown to complement the rfaD phenotype. These clones also result in an amplification of ADP-L-glycero-D-mannoheptose-6-epimerase activity.