Expression and purification of the catalytic domain of human vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 for inhibitor screening

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), an endothelial cell-specific mitogen, can act in tumor-induced angiogenesis by binding to specific receptors on the surface of endothelial cells. One such receptor, VEGFR-2/KDR, plays a key role in VEGF-induced angiogenesis. Here, we expressed the catalytic domain of VEGFR-2 as a soluble active kinase using Bac-to-Bac expression system, and investigated correlations between VEGFR-2 activity and enzyme concentration, ATP concentration, substrate concentration and divalent cation type. We used these data to establish a convenient, effective and non-radioactive ELISA screening technique for the identification and evaluation of potential inhibitors for VEGFR-2 kinase. We screened 200 RTK target-based compounds and identified one (TKI-31) that potently inhibited VEGFR-2 kinase activity (IC50=0.596 microM). Treatment of NIH3T3/KDR cells with TKI-31 blocked VEGF-induced phosphorylation of KDR in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, TKI-31 dose-dependently suppressed HUVEC tube formation. Thus, we herein report a novel, efficient method for identifying VEGFR-2 kinase inhibitors and introduce one, TKI-31, that may prove to be a useful new angiogenesis inhibitor.     

Substituted aminobenzimidazole pyrimidines as cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors

A series of aminobenzimidazole-substituted pyrimidines were synthesized and evaluated for biochemical activity against CDK1. A high-speed parallel synthesis approach enabled the identification of a potent lead series having improved potency in the CDK1 assay (IC(50)<10nM). Cell cycle analysis showed that the compounds induced a G2/M block. Docking studies were carried out with a CDK1 homology model, and provide a rationale for the observed activities.     

beta-cyclodextrin-immobilized (4S)-phenoxy-(S)-proline as a catalyst for direct asymmetric aldol reactions

beta-Cyclodextrin-immobilized (4S)-phenoxy-(S)-proline was prepared conveniently by simply heating the amino acid and beta-cyclodextrin in ethanol-water (1/1, v/v) and removal of the solvent. This proved to be an efficient catalyst for direct asymmetric aldol reactions, and the catalyst could be recycled four times without loss of enantioselectivity.     

Specific cleavage of Mcl-1 by caspase-3 in tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL)-induced apoptosis in Jurkat leukemia T cells

Tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) induces programmed cell death through the caspase activation cascade and translocation of cleaved Bid (tBid) by the apical caspase-8 to mitochondria to induce oligomerization of multidomain Bax and Bak. However, the roles of prosurvival Bcl-2 family proteins in TRAIL apoptosis remain elusive. Here we showed that, besides the specific cleavage and activation of Bid by caspase-8 and caspase-3, TRAIL-induced apoptosis in Jurkat T cells required the specific cleavage of Mcl-1 at Asp-127 and Asp-157 by caspase-3, while other prototypic antiapoptotic factors such as Bcl-2 or Bcl-X(L) seemed not to be affected. Mutation at Asp-127 and Asp-157 of Mcl-1 led to cellular resistance to TRAIL-induced apoptosis. In sharp contrast to cycloheximide-induced Mcl-1 dilapidation, TRAIL did not activate proteasomal degradation of Mcl-1 in Jurkat cells. We further established for the first time that the C-terminal domain of Mcl-1 became proapoptotic as a result of caspase-3 cleavage, and its physical interaction and cooperation with tBid, Bak, and voltage-dependent anion-selective channel 1 promoted mitochondrial apoptosis. These results suggested that removal of N-terminal domains of Bid by caspase-8 and Mcl-1 by caspase-3 enabled the maximal mitochondrial perturbation that potentiated TRAIL-induced apoptosis.     

IQGAP1 promotes neurite outgrowth in a phosphorylation-dependent manner

In eukaryotic cells IQGAP1 binds to and alters the function of several proteins, including actin, E-cadherin, beta-catenin, Cdc42, and Rac1. Yeast IQGAP1 homologues have an important role in cytoskeletal organization, suggesting that modulation of the cytoskeleton is a fundamental role of IQGAP1. Phosphorylation is a common mechanism by which cells regulate protein function. Here we demonstrate that endogenous IQGAP1 is highly phosphorylated in MCF-7 human breast epithelial cells. Moreover, incubation of cells with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) stimulated phosphate incorporation into IQGAP1. By using mass spectrometry, Ser-1443 was identified as the major site phosphorylated on IQGAP1 in intact cells treated with PMA. Ser-1441 was also phosphorylated but to a lesser extent. In vitro analysis with purified proteins documented that IQGAP1 is a substrate for protein kinase Cepsilon, which catalyzes phosphorylation on Ser-1443. Consistent with these findings, inhibition of cellular protein kinase C via bisindolymaleimide abrogated Ser-1443 phosphorylation in response to PMA. To elucidate the biological sequelae of phosphorylation, Ser-1441 and Ser-1443 were converted either to alanine, to create a nonphosphorylatable construct, or to glutamic acid and aspartic acid, respectively, to generate a phosphomimetic IQGAP1. Although overexpression of wild type IQGAP1 promoted neurite outgrowth in N1E-115 neuroblastoma cells, the nonphosphorylatable IQGAP1 S1441A/S1443A had no effect. In contrast, the S1441E/S1443D mutation markedly enhanced the ability of IQGAP1 to induce neurite outgrowth. Our data disclose that IQGAP1 is phosphorylated at multiple sites in intact cells and that phosphorylation of IQGAP1 will alter its ability to regulate the cytoskeleton of neuronal cells.     

T-box genes coordinate regional rates of proliferation and regional specification during cardiogenesis

Mutations in T-box genes are the cause of several congenital diseases and are implicated in cancer. Tbx20-null mice exhibit severely hypoplastic hearts and express Tbx2, which is normally restricted to outflow tract and atrioventricular canal, throughout the heart. Tbx20 mutant hearts closely resemble those seen in mice overexpressing Tbx2 in myocardium, suggesting that upregulation of Tbx2 can largely account for the cardiac phenotype in Tbx20-null mice. We provide evidence that Tbx2 is a direct target for repression by Tbx20 in developing heart. We have also found that Tbx2 directly binds to the Nmyc1 promoter in developing heart, and can repress expression of the Nmyc1 promoter in transient transfection studies. Repression of Nmyc1 (N-myc) by aberrantly regulated Tbx2 can account in part for the observed cardiac hypoplasia in Tbx20 mutants. Nmyc1 is required for growth and development of multiple organs, including the heart, and overexpression of Nmyc1 is associated with childhood tumors. Despite its clinical relevance, the factors that regulate Nmyc1 expression during development are unknown. Our data present a paradigm by which T-box proteins regulate regional differences in Nmyc1 expression and proliferation to effect organ morphogenesis. We present a model whereby Tbx2 directly represses Nmyc1 in outflow tract and atrioventricular canal of the developing heart, resulting in relatively low proliferation. In chamber myocardium, Tbx20 represses Tbx2, preventing repression of Nmyc1 and resulting in relatively high proliferation. In addition to its role in regulating regional proliferation, we have found that Tbx20 regulates expression of a number of genes that specify regional identity within the heart, thereby coordinating these two important aspects of organ development.     

Balance between maternal and paternal alleles sets the timing of resource accumulation in the maize endosperm

Key aspects of seed development in flowering plants are held to be under epigenetic control and to have evolved as a result of conflict between the interests of the male and female gametes (kinship theory). Attempts to identify the genes involved have focused on imprinted sequences, although imprinting is only one mechanism by which male or female parental alleles may be exclusively expressed immediately post-fertilization. We have studied the expression of a subset of endosperm gene classes immediately following interploidy crosses in maize and show that departure from the normal 2 : 1 ratio between female and male genomes exerts a dramatic effect on the timing of expression of some, but not all, genes investigated. Paternal genomic excess prolongs the expression of early genes and delays accumulation of reserves, while maternal genomic excess foreshortens the expression period of early genes and dramatically brings forward endosperm maturation. Our data point to a striking interdependence between the phases of endosperm development, and are consonant with previous work from maize showing progression from cell proliferation to endoreduplication is regulated by the balance between maternal and paternal genomes, and from Arabidopsis suggesting that this ‘phasing’ is regulated by maternally expressed imprinted genes. Our findings are discussed in context of the kinship theory.