'Lamarckian' mechanisms in darwinian evolution

Since the Modern Synthesis, evolutionary biologists have assumed that the genetic system is the sole provider of heritable variation, and that the generation of heritable variation is largely independent of environmental changes. However, adaptive mutation, epigenetic inheritance, behavioural inheritance through social learning, and language-based information transmission have properties that allow the inheritance of induced or learnt characters. The role of induced heritable variation in evolution therefore needs to be reconsidered, and the evolution of the systems that produce induced variation needs to be studied.     

Super-Resolution Imaging of ESCRT-Proteins at HIV-1 Assembly Sites

The cellular endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) machinery is involved in membrane budding processes, such as multivesicular biogenesis and cytokinesis. In HIV-infected cells, HIV-1 hijacks the ESCRT machinery to drive HIV release. Early in the HIV-1 assembly process, the ESCRT-I protein Tsg101 and the ESCRT-related protein ALIX are recruited to the assembly site. Further downstream, components such as the ESCRT-III proteins CHMP4 and CHMP2 form transient membrane associated lattices, which are involved in virus-host membrane fission. Although various geometries of ESCRT-III assemblies could be observed, the actual membrane constriction and fission mechanism is not fully understood. Fission might be driven from inside the HIV-1 budding neck by narrowing the membranes from the outside by larger lattices surrounding the neck, or from within the bud. Here, we use super-resolution fluorescence microscopy to elucidate the size and structure of the ESCRT components Tsg101, ALIX, CHMP4B and CHMP2A during HIV-1 budding below the diffraction limit. To avoid the deleterious effects of using fusion proteins attached to ESCRT components, we performed measurements on the endogenous protein or, in the case of CHMP4B, constructs modified with the small HA tag. Due to the transient nature of the ESCRT interactions, the fraction of HIV-1 assembly sites with colocalizing ESCRT complexes was low (1.5%-3.4%). All colocalizing ESCRT clusters exhibited closed, circular structures with an average size (full-width at half-maximum) between 45 and 60 nm or a diameter (determined using a Ripley’s L-function analysis) of roughly 60 to 100 nm. The size distributions for colocalizing clusters were narrower than for non-colocalizing clusters, and significantly smaller than the HIV-1 bud. Hence, our results support a membrane scission process driven by ESCRT protein assemblies inside a confined structure, such as the bud neck, rather than by large lattices around the neck or in the bud lumen. In the case of ALIX, a cloud of individual molecules surrounding the central clusters was often observed, which we attribute to ALIX molecules incorporated into the nascent HIV-1 Gag shell. Experiments performed using YFP-tagged Tsg101 led to an over 10-fold increase in ESCRT structures colocalizing with HIV-1 budding sites indicating an influence of the fusion protein tag on the function of the ESCRT protein.     

Expression of the Receptor Tyrosine Kinase EphB2 on Dendritic Cells Is Modulated by Toll-Like Receptor Ligation but Is Not Required for T Cell Activation

The Eph receptor tyrosine kinases interact with their ephrin ligands on adjacent cells to facilitate contact-dependent cell communication. Ephrin B ligands are expressed on T cells and have been suggested to act as co-stimulatory molecules during T cell activation. There are no detailed reports of the expression and modulation of EphB receptors on dendritic cells, the main antigen presenting cells that interact with T cells. Here we show that mouse splenic dendritic cells (DC) and bone-marrow derived DCs (BMDC) express EphB2, a member of the EphB family. EphB2 expression is modulated by ligation of TLR4 and TLR9 and also by interaction with ephrin B ligands. Co-localization of EphB2 with MHC-II is also consistent with a potential role in T cell activation. However, BMDCs derived from EphB2 deficient mice were able to present antigen in the context of MHC-II and produce T cell activating cytokines to the same extent as intact DCs. Collectively our data suggest that EphB2 may contribute to DC responses, but that EphB2 is not required for T cell activation. This result may have arisen because DCs express other members of the EphB receptor family, EphB3, EphB4 and EphB6, all of which can interact with ephrin B ligands, or because EphB2 may be playing a role in another aspect of DC biology such as migration.     

Maize Stover and Cob Cell Wall Composition and Ethanol Potential as Affected by Nitrogen Fertilization

Maize (Zea mays L.) stover and cobs are potential feedstock sources for cellulosic ethanol production. Nitrogen (N) fertilization is an important management decision that influences cellulosic biomass and grain production, but its effect on cell wall composition and subsequent cellulosic ethanol production is not known. The objectives of this study were to quantify the responses of maize stover (leaves, stalks, husks, and tassel) and cob cell wall composition and theoretical ethanol yield potential to N fertilization across a range of sites. Field experiments were conducted at rainfed and irrigated sites in Minnesota, USA, over a 2-year period. Stover cell wall polysaccharides, pentose sugar concentration, and theoretical ethanol yield decreased as N fertilization increased. Stover Klason lignin increased with N fertilization at all sites. Cob cell wall composition was less sensitive to N fertilization, as only pentose and Klason lignin decreased with N fertilization at two and one site(s), respectively, and hexose increased with N fertilization at one of eight sites. Cob theoretical ethanol yield was not affected by N fertilization at any site. These results indicate variation in stover cellulosic ethanol production is possible as a result of N management. This study also demonstrated that cell wall composition and subsequent theoretical ethanol yield of maize cobs are generally more stable than those with stover because of overall less sensitivity to N management.     

Endotoxin priming of neutrophils requires NADPH oxidase-generated oxidants and is regulated by the anion transporter ClC-3

Several soluble mediators, including endotoxin, prime neutrophils for an enhanced respiratory burst in response to subsequent stimulation. Priming of neutrophils occurs in vitro, and primed neutrophils are found in vivo. We previously localized the anion transporter ClC-3 to polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN) secretory vesicles and demonstrated that it is required for normal NADPH oxidase activation in response to both particulate and soluble stimuli. We now explore the contribution of the NADPH oxidase and ClC-3 to endotoxin-mediated priming. Lipooligosaccharide (LOS) from Neisseria meningitidis enhances the respiratory burst in response to formyl-Met-Leu-Phe, an effect that was impaired in PMNs lacking functional ClC-3 and under anaerobic conditions. Mobilization of receptors to the cell surface and phosphorylation of p38 MAPK by LOS were both impaired in PMN with the NADPH oxidase chemically inhibited or genetically absent and in cells lacking functional ClC-3. Furthermore, inhibition of the NADPH oxidase or ClC-3 in otherwise unstimulated cells elicited a phenotype similar to that seen after endotoxin priming, suggesting that basal oxidant production helps to maintain cellular quiescence. In summary, NADPH oxidase activation was required for LOS-mediated priming, but basal oxidants kept unstimulated cells from becoming primed. ClC-3 contributes to both of these processes.     

A MAP4 kinase related to Ste20 is a nutrient-sensitive regulator of mTOR signalling

The mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin) signalling pathway is a key regulator of cell growth and is controlled by growth factors and nutrients such as amino acids. Although signalling pathways from growth factor receptors to mTOR have been elucidated, the pathways mediating signalling by nutrients are poorly characterized. Through a screen for protein kinases active in the mTOR signalling pathway in Drosophila we have identified a Ste20 family member (MAP4K3) that is required for maximal S6K (S6 kinase)/4E-BP1 [eIF4E (eukaryotic initiation factor 4E)-binding protein 1] phosphorylation and regulates cell growth. Importantly, MAP4K3 activity is regulated by amino acids, but not the growth factor insulin and is not regulated by the mTORC1 inhibitor rapamycin. Our results therefore suggest a model whereby nutrients signal to mTORC1 via activation of MAP4K3.     

Inhibition of integrin-mediated crosstalk with epidermal growth factor receptor/Erk or Src signaling pathways in autophagic prostate epithelial cells induces caspase-independent death

In vivo in the prostate gland, basal epithelial cells adhere to laminin 5 (LM5) via alpha3beta1 and alpha6beta4 integrins. When placed in culture primary prostate basal epithelial cells secrete and adhere to their own LM5-rich matrix. Adhesion to LM5 is required for cell survival that is dependent on integrin-mediated, ligand-independent activation of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and the cytoplasmic tyrosine kinase Src, but not PI-3K. Integrin-mediated adhesion via alpha3beta1, but not alpha6beta4 integrin, supports cell survival through EGFR by signaling downstream to Erk. PC3 cells, which do not activate EGFR or Erk on LM5-rich matrices, are not dependent on this pathway for survival. PC3 cells are dependent on PI-3K for survival and undergo caspase-dependent death when PI-3K is inhibited. The death induced by inhibition of EGFR or Src in normal primary prostate cells is not mediated through or dependent on caspase activation, but depends on the induction of reactive oxygen species. In addition the presence of an autophagic pathway, maintained by adhesion to matrix through alpha3beta1 and alpha6beta4, prevents the induction of caspases when EGFR or Src is inhibited. Suppression of autophagy is sufficient to induce caspase activation and apoptosis in LM5-adherent primary prostate epithelial cells.