Influence of temporal fluctuations in seed abundance on the diet of harvester ants (Pogonomyrmex spp.) in the central Monte desert,Argentina

Harvester ants usually go through temporal fluctuations in environmental seed abundance and composition which could influence their behaviour and ecology. The aim of this study was to evaluate how these fluctuations influence the diet of Pogonomyrmex rastratus, P. pronotalis and P. inermis (Hymenoptera, Formicidae) in the central Monte desert during three consecutive growing seasons. Although seeds were the main item in the diet, these ants turned more generalist when seed abundance of the most consumed species (grasses Aristida spp., Trichloris crinita, Pappophorum spp., Digitaria californica and Stipa ichu) was low. Accordingly, diversity of items in the diet decreased with seed abundance in a logarithmical fashion, showing higher foraging efficiency for seeds at higher seed abundance. Seed diversity, however, was not related to seed abundance as ants always included several species in their diet, with alternating prevalence. The proportion of the most consumed species increased logarithmically in the diet of P. rastratus and P. pronotalis along with their abundance in the environment probably as a consequence of diet switching (from forb and shrub seeds to grass seeds) and by an increase in foraging efficiency at higher seed densities. In contrast, foraging activity of P. inermis was very low at low seed abundance and its diet included only the five grasses. Among the most consumed species, proportion in the diet was not associated with relative abundance in the environment. Aristida spp., Pappophorum spp. and D. californica were overall highly selected. However, the flexibility in the diet of P. pronotalis and P. rastratus and the low foraging activity of P. inermis during periods of low resource abundance could attenuate potential top‐down effects in the central Monte desert. This study shows that bottom‐up effects are important in ant‐seed interactions and should be considered when predicting and evaluating ants' effects on seed resources.     

Effects of experimental warming of air,soil and permafrost on carbon balance in Alaskan tundra

The carbon (C) storage capacity of northern latitude ecosystems may diminish as warming air temperatures increase permafrost thaw and stimulate decomposition of previously frozen soil organic C. However, warming may also enhance plant growth so that photosynthetic carbon dioxide (CO₂) uptake may, in part, offset respiratory losses. To determine the effects of air and soil warming on CO₂ exchange in tundra, we established an ecosystem warming experiment – the Carbon in Permafrost Experimental Heating Research (CiPEHR) project – in the northern foothills of the Alaska Range in Interior Alaska. We used snow fences coupled with spring snow removal to increase deep soil temperatures and thaw depth (winter warming) and open‐top chambers to increase growing season air temperatures (summer warming). Winter warming increased soil temperature (integrated 5–40 cm depth) by 1.5 °C, which resulted in a 10% increase in growing season thaw depth. Surprisingly, the additional 2 kg of thawed soil C m^?2 in the winter warming plots did not result in significant changes in cumulative growing season respiration, which may have been inhibited by soil saturation at the base of the active layer. In contrast to the limited effects on growing‐season C dynamics, winter warming caused drastic changes in winter respiration and altered the annual C balance of this ecosystem by doubling the net loss of CO₂ to the atmosphere. While most changes to the abiotic environment at CiPEHR were driven by winter warming, summer warming effects on plant and soil processes resulted in 20% increases in both gross primary productivity and growing season ecosystem respiration and significantly altered the age and sources of CO₂ respired from this ecosystem. These results demonstrate the vulnerability of organic C stored in near surface permafrost to increasing temperatures and the strong potential for warming tundra to serve as a positive feedback to global climate change.     

SPERMIOGENESIS AND SPERMATOPHORE IN TELEMA TENELLA SIMON (ARANEAE: TELEMIDAE)—AN ULTRASTRUCTURAL STUDY

The spermatophore of the cave-spider Telema tenella is elaborated in the vas deferens. It has the shape of a long inverted gutter with two rows of digitations and spermatozoa piled up inside. The spermatozoon possesses a 9 + 3 axoneme, retracted in the cytoplasm to form from 4 to 4.5 peripheral whorls; the elongated nucleus and its acrosomal rod make 1.5 whorl. The spermatozoa keep the main part of their cytoplasm. The spermatophore is inserted in the male palp, then transferred to the female during coition. With the exception of this family, all other male Araneae transfer free spermatozoa during coition.     

Patterns of chloroplast DNA polymorphism in the endangered polyploid Centaurea borjae (Asteraceae): implications for preserving genetic diversity.

A previous study with amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) fingerprints found no evidence of genetic impoverishment in the endangered Centaurea borjae and recommended that four management units (MUs) should be designated. Nevertheless, the high ploidy (6x) of this narrow endemic plant suggested that these conclusions should be validated by independent evidence derived from non-nuclear markers. Here, the variable trnT-F region of the plastid genome was sequenced to obtain this new evidence and to provide an historical background for the current genetic structure. Plastid sequences revealed little genetic variation; calling into question the previous conclusion that C. borjae does not undergo genetic impoverishment. By contrast, the conclusion that gene flow must be low was reinforced by the strong genetic differentiation detected among populations using plastid sequences (global F_ST = 0.419). The spatial arrangement of haplotypes and diversity indicate that the populations currently located at the center of the species range are probable sites of long-persistence whereas the remaining sites may have derived from a latter colonization. From a conservation perspective, four populations contributed most to the allelic richness of the plastid genome of the species and should be given priority. Combined with previous AFLP results, these new data recommended that five, instead of four, MUs should be established. Altogether, our study highlights the benefits of combining markers with different modes of inheritance to design accurate conservation guidelines and to obtain clues on the evolutionary processes behind the present-day genetic structures.     

Increased plumage darkness of female Shiny Cowbirds Molothrus bonariensis in the subtropics: an adaptation to bacterial degradation?

The Shiny Cowbird Molothrus bonariensis is a sexually dichromatic species, in which males have blackish‐blue iridescence and females are dull brown. However, in some subtropical parts of its distribution, females show a plumage polymorphism that ranges from dull brown to dark brown and even black. Plumage melanization has been shown to protect feathers from bacterial degradation, decreasing the effects of harmful bacterial activity and thus plumage damage. In this study, we assessed whether bacterial feather‐degrading activity is acting as the selective force to increase darkness in the plumage of the female Shiny Cowbirds in Argentina. We compared the degradation of female Shiny Cowbird feathers belonging to different colour morphs when exposed to bacterial strains isolated from subtropical and temperate zones of its distribution, as well as to Bacillus licheniformis. We did not find differences in susceptibility to bacterial degradation between brown feathers and darker feathers. These results suggest that female plumage polymorphism in Shiny Cowbirds has not arisen as a defence against bacterial feather‐degrading activity.     

Ecohydrological effects of grazing‐induced degradation in the Patagonian Monte,Argentina

Water‐limited ecosystems have undergone rapid change as a consequence of changing land use and climate. The consequences of these changes on soil quality and vegetation dynamics have been documented in different regions of the world. In contrast, their effects on soil water, the most limiting resource in these environments, have received less attention, although in recent years increasing efforts have been made to relate grazing, soil water and vegetation functioning. In this paper, we present the results of field observations of plant phenology and soil water content carried out during two successive years at four sites along a degradation gradient caused by grazing in the Patagonian Monte, Argentina. We also developed a simplified soil water balance model to evaluate how changes in plant cover could affect water balance. Our field observations showed that the soil water content in the soil layer where roots of grasses are abundant (0–25 cm) was higher and the growing cycles were longer in degraded than in preserved sites. Similarly, our modelling approach showed that the deep soil (depth > 10 cm) was wetter in the degraded than in the preserved situation. Simulation also suggested a switch from transpiration to a direct evaporation dominance of water losses with degradation. Although reductions in plant cover related to grazing degradation were associated with a decrease in annual transpiration, the simulated soil water loss by transpiration was higher during summer in the degraded than in the well preserved situation. Thus, our field observations seem to be a consequence of ecohydrological changes causing an accumulation of water in the soil profile during the cold season and its transpiration during summer. In conclusion, our results showed that changes in plant cover caused by grazing disturbance can alter the soil water balance, which in turn can affect vegetation function.