Complete Taiwanese Macaque (Macaca cyclopis) Mitochondrial Genome: Reference-Assisted de novo Assembly with Multiple k-mer Strategy

The Taiwanese (Formosan) macaque (Macaca cyclopis) is the only nonhuman primate endemic to Taiwan. This primate species is valuable for evolutionary studies and as subjects in medical research. However, only partial fragments of the mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of this primate species have been sequenced, not mentioning its nuclear genome. We employed next-generation sequencing to generate 2 x 90 bp paired-end reads, followed by reference-assisted de novo assembly with multiple k-mer strategy to characterize the M. cyclopis mitogenome. We compared the assembled mitogenome with that of other macaque species for phylogenetic analysis. Our results show that, the M. cyclopis mitogenome consists of 16,563 nucleotides encoding for 13 protein-coding genes, 2 ribosomal RNAs and 22 transfer RNAs. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that M. cyclopis is most closely related to M. mulatta lasiota (Chinese rhesus macaque), supporting the notion of Asia-continental origin of M. cyclopis proposed in previous studies based on partial mitochondrial sequences. Our work presents a novel approach for assembling a mitogenome that utilizes the capabilities of de novo genome assembly with assistance of a reference genome. The availability of the complete Taiwanese macaque mitogenome will facilitate the study of primate evolution and the characterization of genetic variations for the potential usage of this species as a non-human primate model for medical research.     

Genetically expressed cameleon in Drosophila melanogaster is used to visualize olfactory information in projection neurons

Complex external stimuli such as odorants are believed to be internally represented in the brain by spatiotemporal activity patterns of extensive neuronal ensembles. These activity patterns can be recorded by optical imaging techniques. However, optical imaging with conventional fluorescence dyes usually does not allow for resolving the activity of biologically defined groups of neurons. Therefore, specifically targeting reporter molecules to neuron populations of common genetic identity is an important goal. We report the use of the genetically encoded calcium-sensitive fluorescence protein cameleon 2.1 in the Drosophila brain. We visualized odorant-evoked intracellular calcium concentration changes in selectively labeled olfactory projection neurons both postsynaptically in the antennal lobe, the primary olfactory neuropil, and presynaptically in the mushroom body calyx, a structure involved in olfactory learning and memory. As a technical achievement, we show that calcium imaging with a genetically encoded fluorescence probe is feasible in a brain in vivo. This will allow one to combine Drosophila's advanced genetic tools with the physiological analysis of brain function. Moreover, we report for the first time optical imaging recordings in synaptic regions of the Drosophila mushroom body calyx and antennal lobe. This provides an important step for the use of Drosophila as a model system in olfaction.     

Dysregulation of IRP1-Mediated Iron Metabolism Causes Gamma Ray-specific Radioresistance in Leukemia Cells

Iron is required for nearly all organisms, playing important roles in oxygen transport and many enzymatic reactions. Excess iron, however, can be cytotoxic. Emerging evidence suggests that radioresistance can be achieved in lower organisms by the protection of proteins, but not DNA, immediately following ionizing radiation (IR) exposure, allowing for improved DNA repair. One potential mechanism for protein protection is controlling and limiting the amount of free iron in cells, as has been demonstrated in the extremophile Deinococcus Radiodurans, reducing the potential for oxidative damage to proteins during exposure to IR. We found that iron regulatory protein 1 (IRP1) expression was markedly reduced in human myeloid leukemia HL60 cells resistant to low linear energy transfer (LET) gamma rays, but not to high LET alpha particles. Stable knockdown of IRP1 by short-hairpin RNA (shRNA) interference in radiosensitive parental cells led to radioresistance to low LET IR, reduced intracellular Fenton chemistry, reduced protein oxidation, and more rapid DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair. The mechanism of radioresistance appeared to be related to attenuated free radical-mediated cell death. Control of intracellular iron by IRPs may be a novel radioresistance mechanism in mammalian cells.     

nNOS gene transfer to RVLM improves baroreflex function in rats with chronic heart failure

We hypothesized that gene transfer of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) into the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) improves baroreflex function in rats with chronic heart failure (CHF). Six to eight weeks after coronary artery ligation, rats showed hemodynamic signs of CHF. A recombinant adenovirus, either Ad.nNOS or Ad.beta-Gal, was transfected into the RVLM. nNOS expression in the RVLM was confirmed by Western blot analysis, NADPH-diaphorase, and immunohistochemical staining. We studied baroreflex control of the heart rate (HR) and renal sympathetic nerve activity (RSNA) in the anesthetized state 3 days after gene transfer by intravenous injections of phenylephrine and nitroprusside. Baroreflex sensitivity was depressed for HR and RSNA regulation in CHF rats (2.0 +/- 0.3 vs. 0.8 +/- 0.2 beats.min-1.mmHg-1, P < 0.01 and 3.8 +/- 0.3 vs. 1.2 +/- 0.1% max/mmHg, P < 0.01, respectively). Ad.nNOS transfer into RVLM significantly increased the HR and RSNA ranges (152 +/- 19 vs. 94 +/- 12 beats/min, P < 0.05 and 130 +/- 16 vs. 106 +/- 5% max/mmHg, P < 0.05) compared with the Ad.beta-Gal in CHF rats. Ad.nNOS also improved the baroreflex gain for the control of HR and RSNA (1.8 +/- 0.2 vs. 0.8 +/- 0.2 beats.min-1.mmHg-1, P < 0.01 and 2.6 +/- 0.2 vs. 1.2 +/- 0.1% max/mmHg, P < 0.01). In sham-operated rats, we found that Ad.nNOS transfer enhanced the HR range compared with Ad.beta-Gal gene transfer (188 +/- 15 vs. 127 +/- 14 beats/min, P < 0.05) but did not alter any other parameter. This study represents the first demonstration of altered baroreflex function following increases in central nNOS in the CHF state. We conclude that delivery of Ad.nNOS into the RVLM improves baroreflex function in rats with CHF.     

Infection and tissue engineering in segmental bone defects--a mini review

As tissue engineering becomes more of a clinical reality through the ongoing bench to bedside transition, research in this field must focus on addressing relevant clinical situations. Although most in vivo work in the area of bone tissue engineering focuses on bone regeneration within sterile, surgically created defects, there is a growing need for the investigation of bone tissue engineering approaches within contaminated or scarred wound beds, such as those that may be encountered following traumatic injury or during delayed reconstruction/regeneration. Significant work has been performed in the area of local drug delivery via biomaterial carriers, but there is little intersection in the available literature between antibiotic delivery and tissue regeneration. In this review, we examine recent advances in segmental bone defect animal models, bone tissue engineering, and drug delivery with the goal of identifying promising approaches and areas needing further investigation towards developing both a better understanding of and new tissue engineering approaches for addressing infection control while simultaneously initiating bone regeneration.     

Inflammatory cytokines promote growth of intestinal smooth muscle cells by induced expression of PDGF‐Rβ

Thickening of the inflamed intestinal wall involves growth of smooth muscle cells (SMC), which contributes to stricture formation. Earlier, the growth factor platelet‐derived growth factor (PDGF)‐BB was identified as a key mitogen for SMC from the rat colon (CSMC), and CSMC growth in colitis was associated with both appearance of its receptor, PDGF‐Rβ and modulation of phenotype. Here, we examined the role of inflammatory cytokines in inducing and modulating the growth response to PDGF‐BB. CSMC were enzymatically isolated from Sprague–Dawley rats, and the effect of tumour necrosis factor (TNF)‐α, interleukin (IL)‐1β, transforming growth factor (TGF), IL‐17A and IL‐2 on CSMC growth and responsiveness to PDGF‐BB were assessed using proliferation assays, PCR and western blotting. Conditioned medium (CM) was obtained at 48 hrs of trinitrobenzene sulphonic acid‐induced colitis. Neither CM alone nor cytokines caused proliferation of early‐passage CSMC. However, CM from inflamed, but not control colon significantly promoted the effect of PDGF‐BB. IL‐1β, TNF‐α and IL‐17A, but not other cytokines, increased the effect of PDGF‐BB because of up‐regulation of mRNA and protein for PDGF‐Rβ without change in receptor phosphorylation. PDGF‐BB was identified in adult rat serum (RS) and RS‐induced CSMC proliferation was inhibited by imatinib, suggesting that blood‐derived PDGF‐BB is a local mitogen in vivo. In freshly isolated CSMC, CM from the inflamed colon as well as IL‐1β and TNF‐α induced the early expression of PDGF‐Rβ, while imatinib blocked subsequent RS‐induced cell proliferation. Thus, pro‐inflammatory cytokines both initiate and maintain a growth response in CSMC via PDGF‐Rβ and serum‐derived PDGF‐BB, and control of PDGF‐Rβ expression may be beneficial in chronic intestinal inflammation.     

Cytotoxicity evaluation of silica nanoparticles using fish cell lines

Nanoparticles (NPs) have extensive industrial, biotechnological, and biomedical/pharmaceutical applications, leading to concerns over health risks to humans and biota. Among various types of nanoparticles, silica nanoparticles (SiO₂ NPs) have become popular as nanostructuring, drug delivery, and optical imaging agents. SiO₂ NPs are highly stable and could bioaccumulate in the environment. Although toxicity studies of SiO₂ NPs to human and mammalian cells have been reported, their effects on aquatic biota, especially fish, have not been significantly studied. Twelve adherent fish cell lines derived from six species (rainbow trout, fathead minnow, zebrafish, goldfish, haddock, and American eel) were used to comparatively evaluate viability of cells by measuring metabolic impairment using Alamar Blue. Toxicity of SiO₂ NPs appeared to be size-, time-, temperature-, and dose-dependent as well as tissue-specific. However, dosages greater than 100 μg/mL were needed to achieve 24 h EC₅₀ values (effective concentrations needed to reduce cell viability by 50%). Smaller SiO₂ NPs (16 nm) were relatively more toxic than larger sized ones (24 and 44 nm) and external lining epithelial tissue (skin, gills)-derived cells were more sensitive than cells derived from internal tissues (liver, brain, intestine, gonads) or embryos. Higher EC₅₀ values were achieved when toxicity assessment was performed at higher incubation temperatures. These findings are in overall agreement with similar human and mouse cell studies reported to date. Thus, fish cell lines could be valuable for screening emerging contaminants in aquatic environments including NPs through rapid high-throughput cytotoxicity bioassays.     

Design and synthesis of orally active pyrrolidin-2-one-based factor Xa inhibitors

A series of novel, non-basic 3-(6-chloronaphth-2-ylsulfonyl)aminopyrrolidin-2-one-based factor Xa (fXa) inhibitors, incorporating an alanylamide P4 group, was designed and synthesised. Within this series, the N-2-(morpholin-4-yl)-2-oxoethyl derivative 24 was shown to be a potent, selective fXa inhibitor with good anticoagulant activity. Moreover, 24 possessed highly encouraging rat and dog pharmacokinetic profiles with excellent oral bioavailabilities in both species.