Conversion of 11-hydroxy-O-methylsterigmatocystin to aflatoxin G1 in Aspergillus parasiticus

In aflatoxin biosynthesis, aflatoxins G(1) (AFG(1)) and B(1) (AFB(1)) are independently produced from a common precursor, O-methylsterigmatocystin (OMST). Recently, 11-hydroxy-O-methylsterigmatocystin (HOMST) was suggested to be a later precursor involved in the conversion of OMST to AFB(1), and conversion of HOMST to AFB(1) was catalyzed by OrdA enzyme. However, the involvement of HOMST in AFG(1) formation has not been determined. In this work, HOMST was prepared by incubating OrdA-expressing yeast with OMST. Feeding Aspergillus parasiticus with HOMST allowed production of AFG(1) as well as AFB(1). In cell-free systems, HOMST was converted to AFG(1) when the microsomal fraction, the cytosolic fraction from A. parasiticus, and yeast expressing A. parasiticus OrdA were added. These results demonstrated (1) HOMST is produced from OMST by OrdA, (2) HOMST is a precursor of AFG(1) as well as AFB(1), and (3) three enzymes, OrdA, CypA, and NadA, and possibly other unknown enzymes are involved in conversion of HOMST to AFG(1).     

Molybdophyllysin,a toxic metalloendopeptidase from the tropical toadstool,Chlorophyllum molybdites

A toxic protein, dubbed molybdophyllysin, was isolated from the tropical toadstool Chlorophyllum molybdites by following its lethal effect in mice. Analysis of the protein using SDS–PAGE revealed a single 23-kDa band. Sequence analysis of molybdophyllysin tryptic fragments showed that this protein is highly homologous to metalloendopeptidases (MEPs) obtained from edible mushrooms, such as Grifola frondosa, Pleurotus ostreatus, and Armillaria mellea. These proteins include a HEXXH+D zinc-binding motif known as aspzincin. Accordingly, molybdophyllysin is a member of the deuterolysin family of zinc proteases. Molybdophyllysin retained its proteolytic activity at temperatures up to 60 °C with an optimum pH of 7.0. The activity was inhibited by both 1,10-phenanthroline and N-bromosuccinimide, but molybdophyllysin exhibited strong resistance to SDS.     

Design of a hypoxia-activated prodrug inhibitor of O(6)-alkylguanine-DNA alkyltransferase

The efficacy of agents that alkylate the O-6 position of guanine is inhibited by O(6)-alkylguanine-DNA alkyltransferase (AGT) which removes these lesions from the tumor DNA. To increase differential toxicity, inhibitors must selectively deplete AGT in tumors, while sparing normal tissues where this protein serves a protective function. A newly synthesized prodrug of the AGT inhibitor O(6)-benzylguanine (O(6)-BG) with an α,α-dimethyl-4-nitrobenzyloxycarbonyl moiety masking the essential 2-amino group has demonstrated the feasibility of targeting hypoxic regions that are unique to solid tumors, for drug delivery. However, these modifications resulted in greatly decreased solubility. Recently, new potent global AGT inhibitors with improved formulatability such as O(6)-[(3-aminomethyl)benzylguanine (1) have been developed. However, acetylamino (N-(3-(((2-amino-9H-purin-6-yl)oxy)methyl)benzyl)acetamide) (2) exhibits a pronounced decrease in activity. Thus, 1 would be inactivated by N-acetylation and probably N-glucuronidation. To combat potential conjugational inactivation while retaining favorable solubility, we synthesized 6-((3-((dimethylamino)methyl)benzyl)oxy)-9H-purin-2-amine (3) in which the 3-aminomethyl moiety is protected by methylation; and to impart tumor selectivity we synthesized 2-(4-nitrophenyl)propan-2-yl(6-((3-((dimethylamino)methyl)benzyl)oxy)-9H-purin-2-yl)carbamate (7), a hypoxia targeted prodrug of 3 utilizing an α,α-dimethyl-4-nitrobenzyloxycarbonyl moiety. Consistent with this design, 7 demonstrates both hypoxia selective conversion by EMT6 cells of 7 to 3 and hypoxic sensitization of AGT containing DU145 cells to the cytotoxic actions of laromustine, while exhibiting improved solubility.     

Enhancement of the structural stability of full-length clostridial collagenase by calcium ions

The clostridial collagenases G and H are multidomain proteins. For collagen digestion, the domain arrangement is likely to play an important role in collagen binding and hydrolysis. In this study, the full-length collagenase H protein from Clostridium histolyticum was expressed in Escherichia coli and purified. The N-terminal amino acid of the purified protein was Ala31. The expressed protein showed enzymatic activity against azocoll as a substrate. To investigate the role of Ca(2+) in providing structural stability to the full-length collagenase H, biophysical measurements were conducted using the recombinant protein. Size exclusion chromatography revealed that the Ca(2+) chelation by EGTA induced interdomain conformational changes. Dynamic light scattering measurements showed an increase in the percent polydispersity as the Ca(2+) was chelated, suggesting an increase in protein flexibility. In addition to these conformational changes, differential scanning fluorimetry measurements revealed that the thermostability was decreased by Ca(2+) chelation, in comparison with the thermal melting point (T(m)). The melting point changed from 54 to 49°C by the Ca(2+) chelation, and it was restored to 54°C by the addition of excess Ca(2+). These results indicated that the interdomain flexibility and the domain arrangement of full-length collagenase H are reversibly regulated by Ca(2+).     

Stability of acetaldehyde-derived DNA adduct in vitro

Acetaldehyde (AA) derived from alcoholic beverages is a confirmed carcinogen for esophageal and head and neck cancers. AA forms various DNA adducts and is thought to play a crucial role in carcinogenesis. Transient DNA adducts are usually repaired, but the stability of AA-derived DNA adducts has not been elucidated. We investigated the stability of N(2)-ethylidene-2'-deoxyguanosine (N(2)-ethylidene-dG), a major AA-derived DNA adduct, in cultured cells. First, to determine the optimal concentration of AA for detecting N(2)-ethylidene-dG in cell culture, a dose-response study was performed using HL60 cells of the human promyelocytic leukemia cell line. An AA concentration ≥ 0.01% (1.8 mM) was required to detect N(2)-ethylidene-dG in vitro. We next examined the stability of N(2)-ethylidene-dG. After a 1 or 2h exposure to 0.01% of AA in a tightly sealed bottle, N(2)-ethylidene-dG content was measured by sensitive liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry immediately, 24h, and 48 h after exposure. After the 1h exposure, the mean (± SD) N(2)-ethylidene-dG contents were 12.1 ± 1.28, 8.20 ± 0.64, and 6.70 ± 0.52 adducts per 10(7) bases at each postexposure time. After the 2h exposure, N(2)-ethylidene-dG content increased to 21.4 ± 7.50, 10.5 ± 3.61, and 9.83 ± 3.90 adducts per 10(7) bases at each postexposure time. The half-life of this adduct was calculated as ～35 h in independent experiments. These results indicate that AA exposure from daily alcohol consumption may cause DNA damage and may increase the risk of alcohol-related carcinogenesis.     

Species status of Incisitermes spp. (Isoptera: Kalotermitidae) in Japan

The species status of Japanese populations of Incisitermes immigrans from Iwo and Minami Daito Islands was examined using mitochondrial 16S molecular barcode sequences. The molecular sequences of these two populations were compared to those of other Incisitermes spp. deposited in the GenBank database using a maximum likelihood phylogenetic analysis. This analysis suggested that the Minami Daito population is indeed I. schwarzi, as suspected previously, while the sequence of the Iwo Island population was identical to that of authentic I. immigrans. In addition to I. minor, which is recorded from middle and southern Japan, the presence of three Incisitermes species in Japan was confirmed.