How mountains shape biodiversity: The role of the Andes in biogeography,diversification, and reproductive biology in South America's most species‐rich lizard radiation (Squamata: Liolaemidae)

Testing hypotheses on drivers of clade evolution and trait diversification provides insight into many aspects of evolutionary biology. Often, studies investigate only intrinsic biological properties of organisms as the causes of diversity, however, extrinsic properties of a clade's environment, particularly geological history, may also offer compelling explanations. The Andes are a young mountain chain known to have shaped many aspects of climate and diversity of South America. The Liolaemidae are a radiation of South American reptiles with over 300 species found across most biomes and with similar numbers of egg‐laying and live‐bearing species. Using the most complete dated phylogeny of the family, we tested the role of Andean uplift in biogeography, diversification patterns, and parity mode of the Liolaemidae. We find that the Andes promoted lineage diversification and acted as a species pump into surrounding biomes. We also find strong support for the role of Andean uplift in boosting the species diversity of these lizards via allopatric fragmentation. Finally, we find repeated shifts in parity mode associated with changing thermal niches, with live‐bearing favored in cold climates and egg‐laying favored in warm climates. Importantly, we find evidence for possible reversals to oviparity, an evolutionary transition believed to be extremely rare.     

Beneficial effect of fluorocarbon emulsion media on the function of neuromuscular preparations in vitro

The effects of liquid fluorocarbons as bathing media were determined by use of in vitro neuromuscular preparations. Rat hemidiaphragms were bathed in either oxygenated fluorocarbon (FC) emulsion or standard oxygenated Krebs solution. Contractile force in response to simple supramaximal nerve stimuli as well as to high frequency stimulation was greater, while twitch:tetanus ratio was smaller in FC emulsion. With such medium, post-tetanic potentiation of contraction was also more consistently observed. Indirectly stimulated diaphragms survived longer in FC emulsion. After cessation of oxygenation, oxygen tension (ρO(2)) of the medium declined more rapidly with Krebs than with FC emulsion; ρO(2) directly correlated with force of contraction. Similarly, in the chick biventer cervicis preparation, FC emulsion enhanced nerve-stimulated force of contraction; returning the preparation to standard Krebs solution reversed this phenomenon. Dose-resonse curves of muscle contraction in response to acetycholine and KCl administration were shifted upward during FC emulsion superfusion. Frequency of miniature endplate potentials was lower in FC emulsion than that observed in Krebs solution, measured from the same cell of the rat diaphragm. Resting membrane potentials were also greater in muscle cells sampled from FC emulsion-bathed preparations. These data suggest that FC emulsion is superior to standard Krebs solution as a bathing medium for in vitro neuromuscular preparations by virtue of the high solubility of oxygen in it.     

The complement component C1s catalysed hydrolysis of peptide 4-nitroanilide substrates

The kinetic parameter kcat/Km has been determined for the hydrolysis of peptide 4-nitroanilides, catalysed by complement component C1s. Substrates based on the C-terminal sequence of human C4a (Leu-Gln-Arg) were synthesised. Replacement of the glutamine residue by glycine or serine increased kcat/Km. Substitution of valine for the leucine residue increased kcat/Km, while substitution of glycine or lysine for the leucine residue decreased kcat/Km slightly. D-Val-Ser-Arg 4-nitroanilide is the most reactive 4-nitroanilide substrate towards C1s, so far. These results are discussed in relation to the amino acid sequences near the bonds cleaved by C1s in C4, C2 and C1 inhibitor.