Structure of human phenylethanolamine n-methyltransferase gene: existence of two types of mRNA with different transcription initiation sites

The chromosomal gene for human phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT; EC 2.1.1.28) was isolated from a human genomic library using a cloned human PNMT cDNA as a probe, and the nucleotide sequence was determined. PNMT is encoded in a single gene which consists of three exons. We observed newly the presence of minor PNMT mRNA (type B) besides the major mRNA (type A) as reported previously (Kaneda et al., J. Biol. Chem. 263, 7672–7677, 1988) by Northern hybridization. Type B mRNA carries an approximately 700 nucleotide-long untranslated region in the 5′ terminus. This suggests that two types of mRNA are produced from a single gene through the use of two alternative promoters. A TATA-like sequence locates 30 base pair upstream from the cap site of type A mRNA. Upstream of the cap site, there are several sequences resembling Spl binding sites and glucocorticoid responsive elements, with the latter also found in the first intron.     

Cryoprotectant permeability of aquaporin-3 expressed in Xenopus oocytes

It has been shown that aquaporin-3, a water channel, is expressed in mouse embryos. This type of aquaporin transports not only water but also neutral solutes, including cell-permeating cryoprotectants. Therefore, the expression of this channel may have significant influence on the survival of cryopreserved embryos. However, permeability coefficients of aquaporin-3 to cryoprotectants have not been determined except for glycerol. In addition, permeability coefficients under concentration gradients are important for developing and improving cryopreservation protocols. In this study, we examined the permeability of aquaporin-3 to various cryoprotectants using Xenopus oocytes. The permeability of aquaporin-3 to cryoprotectants was measured by the volume change of aquaporin-3 cRNA-injected oocytes in modified Barth's solution containing either 10% glycerol, 8% ethylene glycol, 10% propylene glycol, 1.5 M acetamide, or 9.5% DMSO (1.51-1.83 Osm/kg) at 25 degrees C. Permeability coefficients of aquaporin-3 for ethylene glycol and propylene glycol were 33.50 and 31.45 x 10(-3) cm/min, respectively, which were as high as the value for glycerol (36.13 x 10(-3) cm/min). These values were much higher than those for water-injected control oocytes (0.04-0.11 x 10(-3) cm/min). On the other hand, the coefficients for acetamide and DMSO were not well determined because the volume data were poorly fitted by the two parameter model, possibly because of membrane damage. To avoid this, the permeability for these cryoprotectants was measured under a low concentration gradient by suspending oocytes in aqueous solutions containing low concentrations of acetamide or DMSO dissolved in water (0.20 Osm/kg). The coefficient for acetamide (24.60 x 10(-3) cm/min) was as high as the coefficients for glycerol, ethylene glycol, and propylene glycol, and was significantly higher than the value for control (6.50 x 10(-3) cm/min). The value for DMSO (6.33 x 10(-3) cm/min) was relatively low, although higher than the value for control (0.79 x 10(-3) cm/min). This is the first reported observation of DMSO transport by aquaporin-3.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium matuoi</Emphasis> sp. nov. and its teleomorph <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cosmospora matuoi</Emphasis> sp. nov.

A group of Fusarium isolates from slime flux similar to F. aquaeductuum produced unique, strongly curved, aseptate, C-shaped conidia. They were found to be identical to F. splendens nom. nud. Dried specimens from which F. splendens was originally isolated were reexamined and characterized as a new species of Cosmospora. Cosmospora matuoi sp. nov. is proposed for the teleomorph, and Fusarium matuoi sp. nov. is proposed for its anamorph.     

Assortment of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase complexes--Atg14p directs association of complex I to the pre-autophagosomal structure in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, two similar phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase complexes (complexes I and II) function in distinct biological processes, complex I in autophagy and complex II in the vacuolar protein sorting via endosomes. Atg14p is only integrated into complex I, likely facilitating the function of complex I in autophagy. Deletion analysis of Atg14p revealed that N-terminal region containing the coiled-coil structures was essential and sufficient for autophagy. Atg14p localized to pre-autophagosomal structure (PAS) and vacuolar membranes, whereas Vps38p, a component specific to complex II, localized to endosomes and vacuolar membranes. Vps34p and Vps30p, components shared by the two complexes, localized to the PAS, vacuolar membranes, and several punctate structures that included endosomes. The localization of these components to the PAS was Atg14p dependent but not dependent on Vps38p. Conversely, localization of these proteins to endosomes required Vps38p but not Atg14p. Vps15p, regulatory subunit of the Vps34p complexes, localized to the PAS, vacuolar membranes, and punctate structures independent of both Atg14p and Vps38p. Together, these results indicate that complexes I and II function in distinct biological processes by localizing to specific compartments in a manner mediated by specific components of each complex, Atg14p and Vps38p, respectively.     

Effect of Coccolith Polysaccharides Isolated from the Coccolithophorid, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Emiliania huxleyi</Emphasis>, on Calcite Crystal Formation in In Vitro CaCO<Subscript>3</Subscript> Crystallization

Marine coccolithophorids (Haptophyceae) produce calcified scales “coccoliths” which are composed of CaCO₃ and coccolith polysaccharides (CP) in the coccolith vesicles. CP was previously reported to be composed of uronic acids and sulfated residues, etc. attached to the polymannose main chain. Although anionic polymers are generally known to play key roles in biomineralization process, there is no experimental data how CP contributes to calcite crystal formation in the coccolithophorids. CP used was isolated from the most abundant coccolithophorid, Emiliania huxleyi. CaCO₃ crystallization experiment was performed on agar template layered onto a plastic plate that was dipped in the CaCO₃ crystallization solution. The typical rhombohedral calcite crystals were formed in the absence of CP. CaCO₃ crystals formed on the naked plastic plate were obviously changed to stick-like shapes when CP was present in the solution. EBSD analysis proved that the crystal is calcite of which c-axis was elongated. CP in the solution stimulated the formation of tabular crystals with flat edge in the agarose gel. SEM and FIB-TEM observations showed that the calcite crystals were formed in the gel. The formation of crystals without flat edge was stimulated when CP was preliminarily added in the gel. These observations suggest that CP has two functions: namely, one is to elongate the calcite crystal along c-axis and another is to induce tabular calcite crystal formation in the agarose gel. Thus, CP may function for the formation of highly elaborate species-specific structures of coccoliths in coccolithophorids.     

Mechanism of amyloid β-protein aggregation mediated by GM1 ganglioside clusters

It is widely accepted that the conversion of the soluble, nontoxic amyloid β-protein (Aβ) monomer to aggregated toxic Aβ rich in β-sheet structures is central to the development of Alzheimer's disease. However, the mechanism of the abnormal aggregation of Aβ in vivo is not well understood. We have proposed that ganglioside clusters in lipid rafts mediate the formation of amyloid fibrils by Aβ, the toxicity and physicochemical properties of which are different from those of amyloids formed in solution. In this paper, the mechanism by which Aβ-(1-40) fibrillizes in raftlike lipid bilayers composed of monosialoganglioside GM1, cholesterol, and sphingomyelin was investigated in detail on the basis of singular-value decomposition of circular dichroism data and analysis of fibrillization kinetics. At lower protein densities in the membrane (Aβ:GM1 ratio of less than ～0.013), only the helical species exists. At intermediate protein densities (Aβ:GM1 ratio between ～0.013 and ～0.044), the helical species and aggregated β-sheets (～15-mer) coexist. However, the β-structure is stable and does not form larger aggregates. At Aβ:GM1 ratios above ～0.044, the β-structure is converted to a second, seed-prone β-structure. The seed recruits monomers from the aqueous phase to form amyloid fibrils. These results will shed light on a molecular mechanism for the pathogenesis of the disease.     

Molecular basis of guanine nucleotide dissociation inhibitor activity of human neuroglobin by chemical cross-linking and mass spectrometry

Oxidized human neuroglobin (Ngb), a heme protein expressed in the brain, has been proposed to act as a guanine nucleotide dissociation inhibitor (GDI) for the GDP-bound form of the heterotrimeric G protein alpha-subunit (Galpha(i)). Here, to elucidate the molecular mechanism underlying the GDI activity of Ngb, we used an glutathione-S-transferase pull-down assay to confirm that Ngb competes with G-protein betagamma-subunits (Gbetagamma) for binding to Galpha(i), and identified the Galpha(i)-binding site in Ngb by chemical cross-linking with 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide hydrochloride and sulfo-N-hydroxysuccinimide, coupled with mass spectrometry (MS). Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) MS analysis for tryptic peptides derived from the cross-linked Ngb-Galpha(i) complex revealed several binding regions in Ngb. Furthermore, MALDI-TOF/TOF MS analysis of the cross-linked Ngb and Galpha(i) peptides, together with the MS/MS scoring method, predicted cross-linking between Glu60 (Ngb) and Ser206 (Galpha(i)), and between Glu53 (Ngb) and Ser44 (Galpha(i)). Because Ser206 of Galpha(i) is located in the region that contacts Gbetagamma, binding of Ngb could facilitate the release of Gbetagamma from Galpha(i). Binding of Ngb to Galpha(i) would also inhibit the exchange of GDP for GTP, because Ser44 (Galpha(i)) is adjacent to the GDP-binding site and Glu53 (Ngb), which is cross-linked to Ser44 (Galpha(i)), could be located close to GDP. Thus, we have identified, for the first time, the sites of interaction between Ngb and Galpha(i), enabling us to discuss the functional significance of this binding on the GDI activity of Ngb.     

Hydrolysis of sphingosylphosphocholine by neutral sphingomyelinases

Sphingosylphosphocholine (SPC), the N-deacylated form of sphingomyelin (SM), is a naturally occurring lipid mediator. However, little is known about the metabolism of SPC. We here report an in vitro assay system for SPC-phospholipase C (PLC). Using this assay system, we demonstrated that nSMase1 and nSMase2, human neutral sphingomyelinases (SMases), are capable of hydrolyzing SPC efficiently under detergent-free conditions. Bacterial and plasmodial neutral SMases also showed SPC-PLC activity. The substrate specificity of neutral SMases that hydrolyze SM, SPC, and monoradyl glycerophosphocholine, but not diradyl glycerophosphocholine, suggested that a hydrogen-bond donor at the C-2 or sn-2 position in the substrate is required for recognition by the enzymes.     

Morphological differentiation of endothelial cells co-cultured with astrocytes on type-I or type-IV collagen

Summary In this study bovine aortic endothelial cells were co-cultured with astrocytes from fetal Wistar Kyoto rats. Endothelial cells growing on type-I collagen, development. Although some cells appeared to be mature, horseradish peroxidase penetrated within 1 min of incubation through the intercellular junctions of these endothelial elements maintained on type-I collagen. In contrast, endothelial cells on type-IV collagen, co-cultured with astrocytes, were well developed; their intercellular junctions were well established, and plasmalemmal vesicles reduced in number. As a result, horseradish peroxidase was unable to penetrate through the endothelial cells grown on type-IV collagen and co-cultured with astrocytes because of the reduced extent of the junctional and vesicular transport. These findings reveal that (1) type-IV collagen is essential for the differentiation of endothelial cells, (2) endothelial cell-astrocyte interactions occur during co-culture, and (3) endothelial permeability depends on astrocyte-produced factors, in addition to type-IV collagen.