Pyruvate formate lyase (PFL) and PFL activating enzyme in the chytrid fungus Neocallimastix frontalis: a free-radical enzyme system conserved across divergent eukaryotic lineages

Fermentative formate production involves the activity of pyruvate formate lyase, an oxygen-sensitive enzyme that employs a glycyl radical in its reaction mechanism. While common among anaerobic prokaryotes, this enzyme has so far been found in only two distantly related eukaryotic lineages, anaerobic chytridiomycetes and chlorophytes. Sequence comparisons of homologues from the chytridiomycetes Piromyces and Neocallimastix, the chlorophyte Chlamydomonas, and numerous prokaryotes suggest a single, eubacterial origin of eukaryotic pyruvate formate lyases. Pyruvate formate lyase activating enzyme introduces the glycyl radical into the pyruvate formate lyase protein chain. We discovered this enzyme, which had not previously been reported from eukaryotes, in the same two eukaryotic lineages and show that it shares a similar evolutionary history to pyruvate formate lyase. Sequences with high homology to pyruvate formate lyase activating enzyme were identified in the genomes of the anaerobic protozoan parasites Trichomonas vaginalis, Entamoeba histolytica, and Giardia intestinalis. While the occurrence of pyruvate formate lyase activating enzyme together with pyruvate formate lyase in fungi and chlorophytes was to be expected, the target protein of a glycyl radical enzyme-activating enzyme in these protozoa remains to be identified.     

A cephalometric comparison of skulls from different time periods--the Bronze Age, the 19th century and the present

The aim of this study was to evaluate secular trends by means of orthodontic measurements on lateral cephalograms. We use roentgenograms from three populations: 22 Bronze Age skulls from a cemetery near Hainburg/Austria, 140 soldiers who served in the Hapsburg Imperial Army in the late 19th century, and 154 contemporary recruits of the Austrian Federal Army. Using conventional morphometric analysis, no statistically significant differences could be established. But applying geometric morphometrics to the 2D-coordinates of the pentagon composed of the landmarks Sella, Nasion, Articulare, Gonion and Menton, some biologically interpretable differences were detected, the size allometry between the 19th- and 20th-century populations being the only notable one. We conclude that landmarks should be digitized directly (and many more of them) and that conventional methods used in clinical orthodontics are inappropriate for addressing the scientific questions approached here.     

Deletion of mdmB impairs mitochondrial distribution and morphology in Aspergillus nidulans

Mitochondria form a dynamic network of interconnected tubes in the cells of Saccharomyces cerevisiae or filamentous fungi such as Aspergillus nidulans, Neurospora crassa, or Podospora anserina. The dynamics depends on the separation of mitochondrial fragments, their movement throughout the cell, and their subsequent fusion with the other parts of the organelle. Interestingly, the microtubule network is required for the distribution in N. crassa and S. pombe, while S. cerevisiae and A. nidulans appear to use the actin cytoskeleton. We studied a homologue of S. cerevisiae Mdm10 in A. nidulans, and named it MdmB. The open reading frame is disrupted by two introns, one of which is conserved in mdm10 of P. anserina. The MdmB protein consists of 428 amino acids with a predicted molecular mass of 46.5 kDa. MdmB shares 26% identical amino acids to Mdm10 from S. cerevisiae, 35% to N. crassa, and 32% to the P. anserina homologue. A MdmB-GFP fusion protein co-localized evenly distributed along mitochondria. Extraction of the protein was only possible after treatment with a non-ionic and an ionic detergent (1% Triton X-100; 0.5% SDS) suggesting that MdmB was tightly bound to the mitochondrial membrane fraction. Deletion of the gene in A. nidulans affected mitochondrial morphology and distribution at 20 degrees C but not at 37 degrees C. mdmB deletion cells contained two populations of mitochondria at lower temperature, the normal tubular network plus some giant, non-motile mitochondria.     

Actin binding of human LIM and SH3 protein is regulated by cGMP- and cAMP-dependent protein kinase phosphorylation on serine 146

Various drugs that elevate cGMP levels and activate cGMP-dependent protein kinase (cGK) inhibit agonist-induced platelet activation. In the present study we identified the LIM and SH3 domain protein (LASP) that was recently cloned from human breast cancer cells (Tomasetto, C., Regnier, C., Moog-Lutz, C., Mattei, M. G., Chenard, M. P., Liderau, R., Basset, P., and Rio, M. C. (1995) Genomics 28, 367-376) as a novel substrate of cGK in human platelets. Recombinant human LASP was phosphorylated by cGMP- and cAMP-dependent protein kinase (cAK) in vitro. Cotransfection of PtK-2 cells with LASP and cGK confirmed phosphorylation of LASP in vivo. Studies with human LASP mutants identified serine 146 as a specific phosphorylation site for cGK and cAK in vivo. LASP is an actin-binding protein, and the phospho-LASP-mimicking mutant S146D showed reduced binding affinity for F-actin in cosedimentation experiments. Immunofluorescence of transfected PtK2 cells demonstrated the localization of LASP in the tips of cell membrane extensions and at cell-cell contacts. Expression of the human LASP mutant S146D resulted in nearly complete relocalization to the cytosol and reduced migration of the cells. Taken together, these data suggest that phosphorylation of LASP by cGK and cAK may be involved in cytoskeletal organization and cell motility.     

Activation of heterotrimeric G proteins by a high energy phosphate transfer via nucleoside diphosphate kinase (NDPK) B and Gbeta subunits. Specific activation of Gsalpha by an NDPK B.Gbetagamma complex in H10 cells

Formation of GTP by nucleoside diphosphate kinase (NDPK) can contribute to G protein activation in vitro. To study the effect of NDPK on G protein activity in living cells, the NDPK isoforms A and B were stably expressed in H10 cells, a cell line derived from neonatal rat cardiomyocytes. Overexpression of either NDPK isoform had no effect on cellular GTP and ATP levels, basal cAMP levels, basal adenylyl cyclase activity, and the expression of G(s)alpha and G(i)alpha proteins. However, co-expression of G(s)alpha led to an increase in cAMP synthesis that was largely enhanced by the expression of NDPK B, but not NDPK A, and that was confirmed by direct measurement of adenylyl cyclase activity. Cells expressing an inactive NDPK B mutant (H118N) exhibited a decreased cAMP formation in response to G(s)alpha. Co-immunoprecipitation studies demonstrated a complex formation of the NDPK with Gbetagamma dimers. The overexpression of NDPK B, but not its inactive mutant or NDPK A, increased the phosphorylation of Gbeta subunits. In summary, our data demonstrate a specific NDPK B-mediated activation of a G protein in intact cells, which is apparently caused by formation of NDPK B.Gbetagamma complexes and which appears to contribute to the receptor-independent activation of heterotrimeric G proteins.     

The sulfation pattern of chondroitin sulfate from articular cartilage explants in response to mechanical loading

Chondrocytes within articular cartilage experience complete unloading between loading cycles thereby utilizing mechanical signals to regulate their own anabolic and catabolic activities. Structural alterations of proteoglycans (PGs) during aging and the development of osteoarthritis (OA) have been reported; whether these can be attributed to altered load or compression is largely unknown. We report here on experiments in which the effect of intermittent loading on the fine structure of newly synthesized chondroitin sulfate (CS) in bovine articular cartilage explants was examined. Tissues were subjected for 6 days to cyclic compressive pressure using a sinusoidal waveform of 0.1, 0.5 or 1.0 Hz frequency with a peak stress of 0.5 MPa for a period of 5, 10 or 20 s, followed by an unloading period lasting 10, 100 or 1000 s. During the final 18 h of the culture, cartilage explants were radiolabeled with 50 microCi/ml D-6-[3H]glucosamine, and newly synthesized as well as endogenous CS chains were isolated after proteinase solubilization of the tissue. CS chains were depolymerized with chondroitinase ABC and ACII, and the 3H-digestion products were quantified after fractionation by high-performance anion-exchange chromatography using a CarboPac PA1 column. Intermittently applied cyclic mechanical loading did not affect the proportion of 4- and 6-sulfated disaccharide repeats, but caused a significant decrease in the abundance of the 4,6-disulfated nonreducing terminal galNAc residues. In addition, loading induced elongation of CS chains. Taken together, these data provide evidence for the first time that long-term in vitro loading results in marked and reproducible changes in the fine structure of newly synthesized CS, and that accumulation of such chains may in turn modify the physicochemical and biological response of articular cartilage. Moreover, data presented here suggest that in vitro dynamic compression of cartilage tissue can induce some of the same alterations in CS sulfation that have previously been shown to occur during the development of degenerative joint diseases such as OA.     

Origin and diffusion of mtDNA haplogroup X

A maximum parsimony tree of 21 complete mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequences belonging to haplogroup X and the survey of the haplogroup-associated polymorphisms in 13,589 mtDNAs from Eurasia and Africa revealed that haplogroup X is subdivided into two major branches, here defined as “X1” and “X2.” The first is restricted to the populations of North and East Africa and the Near East, whereas X2 encompasses all X mtDNAs from Europe, western and Central Asia, Siberia, and the great majority of the Near East, as well as some North African samples. Subhaplogroup X1 diversity indicates an early coalescence time, whereas X2 has apparently undergone a more recent population expansion in Eurasia, most likely around or after the last glacial maximum. It is notable that X2 includes the two complete Native American X sequences that constitute the distinctive X2a clade, a clade that lacks close relatives in the entire Old World, including Siberia. The position of X2a in the phylogenetic tree suggests an early split from the other X2 clades, likely at the very beginning of their expansion and spread from the Near East.     

Meiotic competence of equine oocytes and pronucleus formation after intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) as related to granulosa cell apoptosis

Follicle atresia and granulosa cell apoptosis may be related to oocyte meiotic and developmental competence. We analyzed the relationships among granulosa cell apoptosis, initial cumulus morphology, oocyte nuclear maturation in vitro, and pronucleus formation after intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) in the horse. For each follicle, the size was measured and granulosa cells were used for DNA laddering analysis. Oocytes were evaluated for cumulus morphology, cultured for in vitro maturation, and submitted to ICSI. Apoptosis was categorized as absent, intermediate, or advanced according to the relative concentrations of two DNA fragments at 900 and 360 base pairs (bp). In 98 oocyte-follicle pairs, 52 oocytes were classified as expanded (Exp), 39 as compact (Cp), and 7 as having a partial (P) cumulus. Advanced apoptosis was detected in 55% (54/98) of follicles; 37% (36/98) of follicles showed an intermediate level of apoptosis; and 8 follicles (8%) were nonapoptotic. Follicle size was not significantly correlated with granulosa cell apoptosis (P > 0.05). Significantly more Exp than Cp oocytes originated from follicles with advanced apoptosis (P < 0.001). The proportion of oocytes maturing in vitro was significantly higher in oocytes issuing from apoptotic follicles than in oocytes issuing from healthy follicles (P < 0.05). The proportion of normally (two pronuclei) or abnormally fertilized oocytes (one or greater than two pronuclei, or partially decondensed sperm) did not differ in relation to granulosa cell apoptosis. We conclude that, in the mare, granulosa cell apoptosis is related to cumulus expansion and an increase in oocyte meiotic competence but has no effect on the proportion of meiotically competent oocytes that activate after ICSI. These results provide selection criteria for horse oocytes used in assisted reproductive techniques so that embryo production may be maximized.     

Dopamine and alcohol relapse: D1 and D2 antagonists increase relapse rates in animal studies and in clinical trials

A considerable number of animal studies on the effects of dopaminergic agents on alcohol intake behavior have been performed. Acute alcohol administration in rats induces dopamine release in the caudate nucleus and in the nucleus accumbens, an effect related among others to reinforcement. It has been repeatedly suggested that D1 and D2 receptor activation mediates reward. As alcohol consumption and dopaminergic transmission seem to have a close relationship, all kinds of dopaminergic agents may be regarded as putative therapeutics for preventing relapse. In a prospective European double-blind multicenter clinical trial, comparing the D1, D2, D3 antagonist flupenthixol and placebo in 281 chronic alcohol-dependent patients (27.4% women), the application of the Lesch typology made an outcome differentiation possible. It could be shown in which patients flupenthixol administration was followed by a significantly higher relapse rate and in which patient groups no differences were found when compared to placebo.     

A (1-->3)-beta-D-linked heptasaccharide is the unit ligand for glucan pattern recognition receptors on human monocytes

Glucans are fungal cell wall polysaccharides which stimulate innate immune responses. We determined the minimum unit ligand that would bind to glucan receptors on human U937 cells using laminarin-derived pentaose, hexaose, and heptaose glucan polymers. When U937 membranes were pretreated with the oligosaccharides and passed over a glucan surface, only the heptasaccharide inhibited the interaction of glucan with membrane receptors at a K(d) of 31 microM (95% CI 20-48 microM) and 100% inhibition. However, the glucan heptasaccharide did not stimulate U937 monocyte NFkappaB signaling, nor did it increase survival in a murine model of polymicrobial sepsis. Laminarin, a larger and more complex glucan polymer (M(w) = 7700 g/mol), only partially inhibited binding (61 +/- 4%) at a K(d) of 2.6 microM (99% CI 1.7-4.2 microM) with characteristics of a single binding site. These results indicate that a heptasaccharide is the smallest unit ligand recognized by macrophage glucan receptors. The data also indicate the presence of at least two glucan-binding sites on U937 cells and that the binding sites on human monocyte/macrophages can discriminate between glucan polymers. The heptasaccharide and laminarin were receptor antagonists, but they were not receptor agonists with respect to activation of NFkappaB-dependent signaling pathways or protection against experimental sepsis.