How internal waves influence the vertical distribution of zooplankton

1. We present data with a high spatio‐temporal resolution from a 72‐h field survey in Bautzen Reservoir (Saxony, Germany). The aims of this survey were to observe hydrophysical processes during a period of unstable stratification in spring and investigate the effect of wind‐induced internal waves on the vertical distribution of zooplankton. 2. Wind velocities up to 10 m s⁻¹ caused a strong downwelling event of warm water at the sampling site and led to the generation of internal waves with an amplitude of 4 m. 3. The zooplankton community, which was dominated by Daphnia galeata, inhabited epilimnetic waters. Downwelling enlarged the thickness of the epilimnetic layer and, hence, led to high zooplankton abundances down to relatively deep water strata indicating lateral transport of zooplankton. As a consequence, area‐specific zooplankton abundances increased considerably (max. fourfold) during downwelling. 4. We conclude that classical limnological field sampling, such as for monitoring purposes, can lead to severely biased estimates of zooplankton abundance due to the interfering effects of hydrophysical processes like internal waves. 5. Backscattering strengths measured by a simultaneously deployed Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (600 kHz) were found to be correlated with estimated zooplankton abundances based on plankton samples.     

Evolutionary innovations of squamate reproductive and developmental biology in the family Chamaeleonidae

The availability of molecular phylogenies has greatly accelerated our understanding of evolutionary innovations in the context of their origin and rate of evolution. Here, we assess the evolution of reproductive mode, developmental rate and body size in a group of squamate reptiles: the chameleons. Oviparity is ancestral and viviparity has evolved at least twice: Bradypodion and members of the Trioceros bitaeniatus clade are viviparous. Viviparous species are medium‐sized as a result of convergence from either small‐sized ancestors or large‐sized ancestors, respectively, but do not differ from oviparous species in clutch size, hatchling size or the trade‐off between clutch and hatchling size. Basal chameleons (Brookesia, Rhampholeon and Rieppeleon) are small‐sized and have developmental rates comparable with those of other lizards. Derived chameleons (Calumma, Chamaeleo, Trioceros and Furcifer) are mostly large‐sized and all have relatively slow developmental rates. Several clades of derived chameleons also exhibit developmental arrest (embryonic diapause or embryonic diapause plus cold torpor) and incubation periods extend to 6–10 months or more. Developmental arrest is associated with dry, highly seasonal climates in which the period favourable for oviposition and hatching is short. Long incubation periods thus ensure that hatching occurs during the favourable season following egg laying. © 2010 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2010, 100 , 656–668.     

The influence of distinct pollinators on female and male reproductive success in the Rocky Mountain columbine

Although there are many reasons to expect distinct pollinator types to differentially affect a plant's reproductive success, few studies have directly examined this question. Here, we contrast the impact of two kinds of pollinators on reproductive success via male and female functions in the Rocky Mountain columbine, Aquilegia coerulea . We set up pollinator exclusion treatments in each of three patches where Aquilegia plants were visited by either day pollinators (majority bumble bees), by evening pollinators (hawkmoths), or by both (control). Day pollinators collected pollen and groomed, whereas evening pollinators collected nectar but did not groom. Maternal parents, potential fathers and progeny arrays were genotyped at five microsatellite loci. We estimated female outcrossing rate and counted seeds to measure female reproductive success and used paternity analysis to determine male reproductive success. Our results document that bumble bees frequently moved pollen among patches of plants and that, unlike hawkmoths, pollen moved by bumble bees sired more outcrossed seeds when it remained within a patch as opposed to moving between patches. Pollinator type differentially affected the outcrossing rate but not seed set, the number of outcrossed seeds or overall male reproductive success. Multiple visits to a plant and more frequent visits by bumble bees could help to explain the lack of impact of pollinator type on overall reproductive success. The increase in selfing rate with hawkmoths likely resulted from the abundant pollen available in experimental flowers. Our findings highlighted a new type of pollinator interactions that can benefit a plant species.     

Experimental disturbance by walkers affects behaviour and territory density of nesting Black-tailed Godwit Limosa limosa

In Europe, the number of areas supporting breeding Black-tailed Godwit Limosa limosa has halved over the last 30 years. Although the decline has been primarily attributed to habitat deterioration, human disturbance has also been implicated. We undertook a controlled experimental study at the Danish Special Protection Area (SPA) reserve at Tipperne, comparing bird behaviour and breeding densities from two baseline years with those in 3 years with two experimental levels of disturbance. Black-tailed Godwits flushed and showed mobbing behaviour significantly more often when disturbed. The duration of simultaneous flights by breeding pairs was greater when disturbed, leaving nests susceptible to predation. Behavioural observations suggested birds were highly sensitive to human disturbance and unlikely to habituate. Disturbance levels of seven walkers/day affected territory densities up to 500 m from routes taken by walkers, causing effective habitat loss to breeding Black-tailed Godwits. The species' sensitivity to disturbance may help explain why it has disappeared from many areas. Effective conservation of important breeding areas and maintenance of high densities of Black-tailed Godwit and other meadow birds necessitates control of public disturbance to breeding areas.     

The Effect of Salinity Changes Upon the Physiology of Eulittoral Green Macroalgae from Antarctica and Southern Chile: II INTRACELLULAR INORGANIC IONS AND ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

The effects of hypo- and hypersaline treatments ranging from7–68% on the intracellular inorganic ion and organic soluteconcentrations were determined in the eulittoral green macroalgaeUlothrix implexa, Ulothrix subflaccida, Enteromorpha bulbosa,Acrosiphonia arcta, and Ulva rigida from Antarctica and SouthernChile. The main inorganic cations were K⁺, Na⁺, and Mg²⁺ inall species. The major osmolyte in E. bulbosa, A. arcta, andU. rigida was K⁺ at increasing salinities. In both Ulothrixspecies, however, K⁺ levels declined during hypersaline stressand Na⁺ concentrations rose significantly. The main inorganicanions were Cl^-, SO²_4-, and PO³_4- in all algae, while E. bulbosaand U. rigida also contained NO⁺₃. A. arcta showed an extremelyhigh SO^2-₄ content. The organic solutes proline, sucrose, andß-dimethylsulphoniopropionate (DMSP) played an importantrole in osmotic acclimation. The occurrence of three organicosmolytes suggests an additional function of these solutes ascryoprotectants in the cold-water macroalgae investigated.     

Phase-related 6-kDa peptide titre in haemolymph of larvae and adult Schistocerca gregaria and its role in yellow-protein synthesis

Abstract.  The haemolymph titre of the phase-related 6-kDa peptide is determined in fourth- and fifth-instar larvae, as well as in adults, by high-performance liquid chromatography. In larvae, the concentration of this peptide slowly increases towards the end of the instar to reach a maximum just before the moult. The titre is slightly higher in the fifth instar than in the fourth instar. In adults, it reaches an average concentration of 0.8 μg μL⁻¹ of the haemolymph. In females, a peak is found at day 15 whereas, in males, there are two peaks, the first at day 9 and the second at day 15 after fledging. The role of the peptide in inducing yellow protein mRNA synthesis is investigated, as is its effect on the production of the pheromonal compound phenylacetonitrile (PAN). The peptide stimulates yellow protein mRNA synthesis, but its injection causes no change in yellow colouration. No effect on PAN production is found.     

When rare species become endangered: cryptic speciation in myrmecophilous hoverflies

The myrmecophilous hoverfly, Microdon mutabilis, is listed as a ‘Rare’ or ‘Nationally Notable Species’ in UK Red Data Books. As an obligate social parasite, feeding only from ant colonies, its life‐style satisfies theoretical conditions under which cryptic speciation is predicted to evolve; namely, strong selection for nonmorphological adaptations that enhance its exploitation of a local subspecies or populations of its host. Samples of larvae and pupae in Ireland, Scotland and England showed that M. mutabilis exploits a single and different host ant species on different sites across its range. In nine southern English colonies, 95.6% of infested nests were of Myrmica scabrinodis whereas in six Irish and two Scottish colonies 100% and 94.2%, respectively, of the infested nests were of Formica lemani, despite M. scabrinodis being common at all sites. Although the adults from ‘scabrinodis’ (and lemani) populations are cryptic, morphometric measurements of pupae showed consistent diagnostic characters that were sufficiently distinct for these ecotypes to be classed as separate species. We conclude that M. mutabilis is the ‘lemani‐type’ and designate the ‘scabrinodis‐type’ as a new species, Microdon myrmicae spec. nov. Thus, one of the listed threatened species of the British Isles becomes two species, each possessing about half the number of populations and occupying half the range of the original ‘species’. Each also inhabits a different serai stage within grassland or heathland, and will require a different management regime if its declining populations are to be conserved. ‘M. mutabilis’ is reported with other host ant species on the European continent. In the light of our results, these may prove to be additional cryptic species. We suggest that cryptic speciation is apt to evolve in species, such as myrmecophiles, endoparasites and koinobiont parasitoids, whose life‐styles result in strong selection on their physiological or behavioural characters. The implications for Red Data Book classifications and for practical conservation are discussed. © 2002 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2002, 75 , 291–300.