Females competing to reproduce: dominance matters but testosterone may not

The associations among aggression, testosterone (T), and reproductive success have been well studied, particularly in male birds. In many species, males challenged with simulated or real territorial intrusions increase T and levels of aggression, outcomes linked to higher dominance status and greater reproductive success. For females, the patterns are less clear. Females behave aggressively towards one another, and in some species, females respond to a social challenge with increases in T, but in other species they do not. Prior work on female dark-eyed juncos (Junco hyemalis) had shown that experimental elevation of T increases social status and intrasexual aggression. Here, we conducted two experiments designed to answer three questions: Are endogenous concentrations of T associated with dominance status in captive female juncos? Does dominance status influence readiness to breed in female juncos? And do captive females increase T in response to a challenge? In the first experiment, we introduced two females to a breeding aviary, allowed them to form a dominance relationship and then introduced a male. We found that dominant females were more likely to breed than subordinates, but that dominance status was not predicted by circulating T. In the second experiment, we allowed a resident male and female to establish ownership of a breeding aviary (territory) then introduced a second, intruder female. We found that resident females were aggressive towards and dominant over intruders, but T did not increase during aggressive interactions. We suggest that during the breeding season, intrasexual aggression between females may influence reproductive success, but not be dependent upon fluctuations in T. Selection may have favored independence of aggression from T because high concentrations of T could interfere with normal ovulation or produce detrimental maternal effects.     

New Polymorphic Microsatellites in Glossina pallidipes (Diptera: Glossinidae) and Their Cross-Amplification in Other Tsetse Fly Taxa

We report the development and characterization of three new microsatellite markers in the tsetse fly, Glossina pallidipes (Diptera: Glossinidae). Fifty-eight alleles were scored in 192 individuals representing six natural populations. Allelic diversity ranged from 9 to 28 alleles per locus (mean 19.3 +/- 5.5). Averaged across loci, observed heterozygosity was 0.581 +/- 0.209, and expected heterozygosity was 0.619 +/- 0.181. Cross-species amplifications of the G. pallidipes loci in other tsetse fly taxa are reported.     

Genetics of symbiosis in Lotus japonicus: recombinant inbred lines, comparative genetic maps, and map position of 35 symbiotic loci

Development of molecular tools for the analysis of the plant genetic contribution to rhizobial and mycorrhizal symbiosis has provided major advances in our understanding of plant-microbe interactions, and several key symbiotic genes have been identified and characterized. In order to increase the efficiency of genetic analysis in the model legume Lotus japonicus, we present here a selection of improved genetic tools. The two genetic linkage maps previously developed from an interspecific cross between L. japonicus Gifu and L. filicaulis, and an intraspecific cross between the two ecotypes L. japonicus Gifu and L. japonicus MG-20, were aligned through a set of anchor markers. Regions of linkage groups, where genetic resolution is obtained preferentially using one or the other parental combination, are highlighted. Additional genetic resolution and stabilized mapping populations were obtained in recombinant inbred lines derived by a single seed descent from the two populations. For faster mapping of new loci, a selection of reliable markers spread over the chromosome arms provides a common framework for more efficient identification of new alleles and new symbiotic loci among uncharacterized mutant lines. Combining resources from the Lotus community, map positions of a large collection of symbiotic loci are provided together with alleles and closely linked molecular markers. Altogether, this establishes a common genetic resource for Lotus spp. A web-based version will enable this resource to be curated and updated regularly.     

Desaturases: Emerging Models for Understanding Functional Diversification of Diiron-containing Enzymes

Desaturases and related enzymes perform O₂-dependent dehydrogenations initiated at unactivated C-H groups with the use of a diiron active site. Determination of the long-sought oxidized desaturase crystal structure facilitated structural comparison of the active sites of disparate diiron enzymes. Experiments on the castor desaturase are discussed that provide experimental support for a hypothesized ancestral oxidase enzyme in the context of the evolution of the diiron enzyme diverse functionality. We also summarize recent analysis of a castor mutant desaturase that provides valuable insights into the relationship of proposed substrate-binding modes with respect to a range of catalytic outcomes.Desaturase enzymes perform dehydrogenation reactions that result in the introduction of double bonds into fatty acids that are initiated by the energy-demanding abstraction of a hydrogen from a methylene group (1–3). To achieve this, desaturase enzymes recruit and activate molecular oxygen with the use of an active-site diiron cluster (4). The diiron center is common to a variety of proteins, including methane monooxygenase, ribonucleotide reductase, rubrerythrins, and a variety of oxidase enzymes (5). Valuable insights regarding the tuning of diiron centers with respect to diverse chemical reactivity (6) have been made via comparisons of the diiron centers of diiron-containing enzymes (7); however, differences in amino acid sequence, multiple protein-protein interactions, and reaction outcomes complicate the analysis. The study of fatty-acid desaturases and related enzymes presents a unique opportunity for performing enzyme structure-function studies because relatively close homologs perform diverse reactions on similar substrates (8, 9).Desaturase enzymes have evolved independently twice (10); the acyl-ACP² desaturases are soluble enzymes found in the plastids of higher plants, whereas the more widespread class of integral membrane desaturases is found in endomembrane systems in prokaryotes and eukaryotes (9). In addition to forming distinct homology groups, their diiron centers possess distinct primary ligation spheres (11). The availability of crystal structures for acyl-ACP desaturases (12) makes this system amenable to detailed structure-function studies. Crystal structures are available for the 18:0 Δ⁹-desaturase³ (12, 13) from Ricinus communis (castor) and a bifunctional desaturase from Hedera helix (ivy) (14, 15). These desaturases are homodimeric proteins, with each monomer folded into a compact single domain composed of nine helices. The diiron active site of these enzymes is buried within a core four-helix bundle and is positioned alongside a deep, bent, narrow hydrophobic cavity in which the substrate is bound during catalysis. It is a textbook example of a lock-and-key type of binding site in which the bound fatty acid moiety is poised for formation of the cis-fatty acid product.Nobel Laureate Konrad Bloch observed, “The stereospecific removal of hydrogen in the formation of oleate, although predictable on principle grounds would seem to approach the limits of the discriminatory power of enzymes” (16). Bloch''s statement underscores that desaturase enzymes perform highly regio- and stereo-selective reactions on long-chain fatty acids composed of essentially equivalent methylene chains that lack distinguishing landmarks close to the site of desaturation. We will review structural features of the diiron active site of the acyl-ACP desaturases in the context of those of other diiron enzymes, discuss recent insights into the evolution of acyl-ACP desaturases, and summarize recent discoveries relating to the evolution of selectivity and functional diversity within desaturase enzyme families.     

Identification of GNE-477, a potent and efficacious dual PI3K/mTOR inhibitor

Efforts to identify potent small molecule inhibitors of PI3 kinase and mTOR led to the discovery of the exceptionally potent 6-aryl morpholino thienopyrimidine 6. In an effort to reduce the melting point in analogs of 6, the thienopyrimidine was modified by the addition of a methyl group to disrupt planarity. This modification resulted in a general improvement in in vivo clearance. This discovery led to the identification of GNE-477 (8), a potent and efficacious dual PI3K/mTOR inhibitor.     

Differential Subcellular Distributions and Trafficking Functions of hnRNP A2/B1 Spliceoforms

Trafficking of mRNA molecules from the nucleus to distal processes in neural cells is mediated by heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein (hnRNP) A2/B1 trans‐acting factors. Although hnRNP A2/B1 is alternatively spliced to generate four isoforms, most functional studies have not distinguished between these isoforms. Here, we show, using isoform‐specific antibodies and isoform‐specific green fluorescent protein (GFP)‐fusion expression constructs, that A2b is the predominant cytoplasmic isoform in neural cells, suggesting that it may play a key role in mRNA trafficking. The differential subcellular distribution patterns of the individual isoforms are determined by the presence or absence of alternative exons that also affect their dynamic behavior in different cellular compartments, as measured by fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. Expression of A2b is also differentially regulated with age, species and cellular development. Furthermore, coinjection of isoform‐specific antibodies and labeled RNA into live oligodendrocytes shows that the assembly of RNA granules is impaired by blockade of A2b function. These findings suggest that neural cells modulate mRNA trafficking by regulating alternative splicing of hnRNP A2/B1 and controlling expression levels of A2b, which may be the predominant mediator of cytoplasmic‐trafficking functions. These findings highlight the importance of considering isoform‐specific functions for alternatively spliced proteins.     

Genetic Basis for Rhizobium etli CE3 O-Antigen O-Methylated Residues That Vary According to Growth Conditions

The Rhizobium etli CE3 O antigen is a fixed-length heteropolymer with O methylation being the predominant type of sugar modification. There are two O-methylated residues that occur, on average, once per complete O antigen: a multiply O-methylated terminal fucose and 2-O methylation of a fucose residue within a repeating unit. The amount of the methylated terminal fucose decreases and the amount of 2-O-methylfucose increases when bacteria are grown in the presence of the host plant, Phaseolus vulgaris, or its seed exudates. Insertion mutagenesis was used to identify open reading frames required for the presence of these O-methylated residues. The presence of the methylated terminal fucose required genes wreA, wreB, wreC, wreD, and wreF, whereas 2-O methylation of internal fucoses required the methyltransferase domain of bifunctional gene wreM. Mutants lacking only the methylated terminal fucose, lacking only 2-O methylation, or lacking both the methylated terminal fucose and 2-O methylation exhibited no other lipopolysaccharide structural defects. Thus, neither of these decorations is required for normal O-antigen length, transport, or assembly into the final lipopolysaccharide. This is in contrast to certain enteric bacteria in which the absence of a terminal decoration severely affects O-antigen length and transport. R. etli mutants lacking only the methylated terminal fucose were not altered in symbiosis with host Phaseolus vulgaris, whereas mutants lacking only 2-O-methylfucose exhibited a delay in nodule development during symbiosis. These results support previous conclusions that the methylated terminal fucose is dispensable for symbiosis, whereas 2-O methylation of internal fucoses somehow facilitates early events in symbiosis.O antigens typically constitute the distal portions of lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and help determine the diverse surface characteristics of Gram-negative bacteria. These repeat unit carbohydrate polymers vary tremendously in structure and, as a family, they exhibit all known sugars and sugar modifications, linked in myriad ways forming homopolymers and heteropolymers. Control of polymer length also varies, allowing highly uniform to completely random lengths. Great diversity of O-antigen structures even within a species is well known. Moreover, O antigens of a single strain can vary according to growth and environmental conditions. One such condition is the presence of a multicellular host (5, 18, 36, 40, 42, 44).Rhizobium etli CE3 fixes nitrogen inside root nodules it incites on the common bean Phaseolus vulgaris. The O antigen of its LPS (Fig. ​(Fig.1)1) is essential for bacterial infection during development of this symbiosis (41). In addition, at least two alterations occur in the O antigen when R. etli CE3 is grown in the presence of either the host plant or plant exudates. The content of the multiply O-methylated terminal fucose is decreased (19, 44), whereas the 2-O methylation of internal fucoses (2OMeFuc) increases twofold (Fig. ​(Fig.1)1) (15, 44). In addition to the multiply O-methylated terminal fucose and 2OMeFuc, methylation occurs always on 6-deoxytalose and likely on glucuronic acid to yield 3-O-methyl-6-deoxytalose (3OMe6dTal) and methyl-esterified glucuronyl (MeGlcA) residues (Fig. ​(Fig.1)1) (22); however, the incidence of these methylations is not known to vary with growth condition. The genetics responsible for the variable O methylations and the additions of the residues they modify have not been elucidated.Open in a separate windowFIG. 1.R. etli CE3 O-antigen structure (22). The portion of the LPS conceptually defined as O antigen begins with N-acetyl-quinovosamine (QuiNAc) at the reducing end followed by a mannose (Man) residue and a fucose (Fuc) residue. Attached to this fucose is the repeating unit consisting of one fucose residue, one 3-O-methyl-6-deoxytalose residue (3OMe6dTal), and one glucuronyl methyl ester residue (MeGlcA). The sugars of the repeating unit are added sequentially exactly five times (in most molecules). An O-acetyl group is present in each of the repeating units, but its location is unknown at this time. Growth in TY culture results in one 2-O-methylfucose (2OMeFuc) per O antigen on average (22). The O-antigen backbone is capped with a 2,3-di-O-methylfucose (referred to as the terminal residue in this report) on which additional O methylation at the 4-position is variable as indicated by parentheses. Growth of the bacteria in the presence of the host plant or plant exudates induces the increase of 2-O methylation of internal fucose (2OMeFuc) residues and decreased relative amount of the terminal residue (44).Most mutations affecting the known R. etli CE3 O-antigen structure map to a 28-kb genetic cluster on the chromosome (Fig. ​(Fig.2)2) (previously referred to as lps region α [8, 19, 37, 40, 45]). Genes and mutations within this cluster previously have been given the designations lps (9) and lpe (19). Recently, the new designation wre has been sanctioned by the Bacterial Polysaccharide Gene Database for this genetic cluster and other genes specifically devoted to the R. etli CE3 O antigen, in keeping with the system of nomenclature for bacterial polysaccharide genes (47).Open in a separate windowFIG. 2.R. etli CE3 O-antigen genetic cluster. (A) The R. etli CE3 chromosomal O antigen genetic cluster spans nucleotides 784527 to 812262 of the genome sequence (28) and consists of 25 putative ORFs. ORFs relevant to the present study are enlarged, and the relative locations of mutations are indicated. White triangles indicate mutations created by insertion of antibiotic cassettes, and black triangles indicate mutations created by Tn5 mutagenesis. The strain numbers carrying these mutations are indicated above the triangles. (B) The solid bars represent the extents of R. etli CE3 DNA cloned for complementation analysis. The scale and positions match those of the lower map in panel A.Duelli et al. (19) identified a 3-kb genetic locus that is required for the presence of the 2,3-di-O-methylfucose or 2,3,4-tri-O-methylfucose at the terminus of the O antigen. Now known to be near one end of the O-antigen genetic cluster (Fig. ​(Fig.2),2), the DNA sequence reported by Duelli et al. encompasses nucleotides 807701 to 810147 of the subsequently determined genome sequence (28). Sequence and annotation of the 3-kb locus have since been revised. In place of the four open reading frames (ORFs) suggested previously (19), the current annotation predicts two ORFs: wreA and wreC (Fig. ​(Fig.2).2). The wreA ORF is predicted to encode a methyltransferase (19), but the predicted WreC polypeptide sequence matches no known methyltransferase or glycosyltransferase or any other polypeptide sequence in the database (Fig. ​(Fig.3).3). When it became clear that this locus was part of the larger O-antigen genetic cluster, the nucleotide sequence suggested that three genes contiguous to wreA also might encode functions needed for synthesis and addition of the terminal fucose. The results to be shown bore out predictions of this hypothesis.Open in a separate windowFIG. 3.Conserved domain predictions. Spanning nucleotides 804817 to 810147 of the genome sequence (28), ORFs RHE_CH00766, RHE_CH00767, RHE_CH00768, RHE_CH00769, and RHE_CH00770 were named wreB, wreD, wreF, wreA, and wreC, respectively. Previously, wreF, wreA, and wreC were referred to as nlpe2, lpeA, and nlpe1, respectively (19). ORF RHE_CH00755, spanning nucleotides 791286 to 794093, was named wreM. Predicted positions of conserved domains are indicated by amino acid positions. Abbreviations: GT, conserved glycosyltransferase domain; MT, conserved methyltransferase domain. Gray boxes indicate the predicted transmembrane domains.The gene responsible for the other conditionally variable O-antigen methylation, the 2-O methylation of internal fucose residues (2OMeFuc), had not been identified in prior published work. However, among mutants isolated by random Tn5 mutagenesis, a few had been shown to lack 2OMeFuc entirely (44). We show here that the transposon insertions were located in the bifunctional gene wreM. Furthermore, results of directed insertion mutagenesis confirm two separate enzymatic domains encoded by this gene, with the α domain being required for the 2-O methylation activity and mutation of the other domain resulting in a truncated O antigen. Mutants from the directed mutagenesis that appeared to have no LPS defects other than the lack of 2OMeFuc served as tools to assess the importance of just this structural feature in the symbiosis with P. vulgaris.     

Differential Modulation of Angiogenesis by Erythropoiesis-Stimulating Agents in a Mouse Model of Ischaemic Retinopathy

Background

Erythropoiesis stimulating agents (ESAs) are widely used to treat anaemia but concerns exist about their potential to promote pathological angiogenesis in some clinical scenarios. In the current study we have assessed the angiogenic potential of three ESAs; epoetin delta, darbepoetin alfa and epoetin beta using in vitro and in vivo models.

Methodology/Principal Findings

The epoetins induced angiogenesis in human microvascular endothelial cells at high doses, although darbepoetin alfa was pro-angiogenic at low-doses (1–20 IU/ml). ESA-induced angiogenesis was VEGF-mediated. In a mouse model of ischaemia-induced retinopathy, all ESAs induced generation of reticulocytes but only epoetin beta exacerbated pathological (pre-retinal) neovascularisation in comparison to controls (p<0.05). Only epoetin delta induced a significant revascularisation response which enhanced normality of the vasculature (p<0.05). This was associated with mobilisation of haematopoietic stem cells and their localisation to the retinal vasculature. Darbepoetin alfa also increased the number of active microglia in the ischaemic retina relative to other ESAs (p<0.05). Darbepoetin alfa induced retinal TNFα and VEGF mRNA expression which were up to 4 fold higher than with epoetin delta (p<0.001).

Conclusions

This study has implications for treatment of patients as there are clear differences in the angiogenic potential of the different ESAs.     

Esc4/Rtt107 and the control of recombination during replication

When replication forks stall during DNA synthesis, cells respond by assembling multi-protein complexes to control the various pathways that stabilize the replication machinery, repair the replication fork, and facilitate the reinitiation of processive DNA synthesis. Increasing evidence suggests that cells have evolved scaffolding proteins to orchestrate and control the assembly of these repair complexes, typified in mammalian cells by several BRCT-motif containing proteins, such as Brca1, Xrcc1, and 53BP1. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Esc4 contains six such BRCT domains and is required for the most efficient response to a variety of agents that damage DNA. We show that Esc4 interacts with several proteins involved in the repair and processing of stalled or collapsed replication forks, including the recombination protein Rad55. However, the function of Esc4 does not appear to be restricted to a Rad55-dependent process, as we observed an increase in sensitivity to the DNA alkylating agent methane methylsulfonate (MMS) in a esc4Deltarad55Delta mutant, as well as in double mutants of esc4Delta and other recombination genes, compared to the corresponding single mutants. In addition, we show that Esc4 forms multiple nuclear foci in response to treatment with MMS. Similar behavior is also observed in the absence of damage when either of the S-phase checkpoint proteins, Tof1 or Mrc1, is deleted. Thus, we propose that Esc4 associates with ssDNA of stalled forks and acts as a scaffolding protein to recruit and/or modulate the function of other proteins required to reinitiate DNA synthesis.