有关IUCN红色名录中“地点”参数合理应用的讨论

“地点”参数是构成IUCN红色名录标准的重要参数之一。在IUCN红色名录评估过程中,使用“地点”参数时常常忽略或简化致危因子的作用,有时仅以标本记录、采集地点数、观测数据、文献记录的分布点、管理单元及行政单位等信息代替“地点”参数,导致“地点”参数不准确甚至偏离实际情况。为解决这些问题,采用图解方式详细描述了“地点”参数的4类正确判断方法,包括根据致危因子的变化判断物种的“地点”参数、根据亚居群范围判断物种未受影响区域的“地点”参数、根据“地点”的最小尺度判断物种未受影响区域的“地点”参数、根据历史记录预测物种的“地点”参数;并以中国特有植物岩生红豆（OrmosiasaxatilisK.M.Lan）为实例对“地点”参数的正确判断方法进行进一步说明。在此基础上,对“地点”参数正确使用过程中存在的困难进行了讨论分析并提出了该参数的使用建议。     

遥感技术在鸟类生态学研究中的应用

获取鸟类活动及生境信息是鸟类生态学研究的基础, 而遥感技术弥补了传统野外调查方法的缺陷, 提供了获取多种信息的新途径。应用遥感技术的鸟类生态学研究热点从最初的种群行为观察, 到栖息地选择, 再到生境适宜性、破碎化及人为干扰探究等, 随着技术的不断发展也在扩展和变化。不同波段或组合下的遥感技术各有所长。光学遥感应用广泛, 尤其是信息量较大的红外波段图像和作为野外鸟巢及物种活动监测常用工具的红外相机; 多光谱图像常用于栖息地制图以及地物识别, 高空间分辨率的数据甚至可对鸟类种群进行直接计数; 高光谱数据则可对光谱特征相似的地物进行更为精确的区分和反演; 激光雷达遥感主要用于栖息地植被结构的三维探测, 为了解鸟类栖息地选择提供更好的依据。微波遥感在飞鸟探测上应用颇多, 近年来多极化数据在复杂栖息地精确制图上也具有优势, 但成本较高、解译复杂且推广度较低。在实际应用中, 遥感数据时空尺度的选择会影响研究结果, 部分遥感反演参数也缺乏生态学意义。多源遥感数据的结合应用能够提升制图分类的精度, 实现数据的时空分辨率互补, 优化鸟类生态研究所需参数。未来的遥感技术在鸟类生态学中的应用应致力于提供更加明确的光谱信息、相对简便的解译方法, 以及更为合理的多源数据组合方式等。     

A theoretical method for evaluating the relative importance of positive selection and neutral drift from observed base changes

To evaluate the relative importance of positive selection and neutral drift from the nucleotide base changes observed in the homologous alignment of genes, a theoretical equation of base changes is formulated by including both the influence of selection and the base substitutions due to mutations. Under the assumption that the average rate of base substitutions estimated from synonymous changes is the ``true' mutation rate applicable at all positions, this method is applied to the vertebrate globin gene family, and evaluates the departures of base change rates from the ``true' mutation rate at the first and second codon positions as a consequence of preferential selection for the conservation of important function. In addition to the strong effect of selection on the amino acid residues in the internal region mostly common to myoglobin and hemoglobin chains, the distinctive directions of selective parameter values are seen at sites on the globin surface, distinguishing the subunit contact residues of hemoglobins from the polar residues on the surface of myoglobins. Moreover, this effect of selection distinguishing between the myoglobin and hemoglobin chain genes becomes weaker in cold-blooded vertebrates, especially in fish, strongly suggesting the possibility that the clear distinction between these globins is a result of selection out of the changes regarded as neutral ones in an ancestor of vertebrates. Thus, the present method may also serve to investigate the homology of many other proteins from the aspect of molecular evolution, mainly focusing on the evolution of their biological functions. Received: 2 January 1996 / Accepted: 20 February 1997     

Genetic improvement of heavy metal tolerance in plants by transfer of the yeast metallothionein gene (CUP1)

Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis) tolerates treatment with 25 µM CdCl2 for eight days, but is killed by that with a 50 µM concentration. However, even 15 µM CdCl2 is toxic in the presence of 1 mM L-buthionine sulfoximine (BSO), suggesting the presence of a Cd-inducible phytochelatin and its involvement in Cd-tolerance in cauliflower. To develop heavy metal-tolerant transgenic plants, we ligated the structural gene of yeast metallothionein gene (CUP1) downstream of CaMV35S promoter and introduced the fused gene into cauliflower. A Cd-tolerant transgenic cauliflower was selected, which grew well in the presence of 400 µM or less Cd, whereas the non-transformed cauliflower tolerated only up to 25 µM Cd. The transgenic cauliflower accumulated more Cd, especially in the upper leaves, than the non-transformed plant.In conclusion, by transfer of the yeast metallothionein gene into cauliflower increased Cd-tolerance and Cd-accumulating ability can be conferred to the plant.     

Variation in Natural Abundance of 15N among Plant Parts and in 15N/14N Fractionation during N2 Fixation in the Legume-Rhizobia Symbiotic System

Sixteen legumes were grown in N-free media so that N was suppliedentirely by symbiotic N₂ fixation. The plant tissues were analyzedfor natural ¹⁵N abundance (expressed as ¹⁵N per mil relativeto air N₂) with a ratio mass spectrometer. The nodules of desmodium,centro, siratro, soybean and winged bean showed high enrichmentin ¹⁵N (+9), while red clover showed slight enrichment (+2).The nodules of 9 other forage legumes (Townsville stylo, whiteclover, alsike clover, common vetch, Chinese milk vetch, senna,alfalfa, ladino clover, and hairy vetch) showed little enrichmentin ¹⁵N. In all the legumes investigated, particularly in the ureide-transportingplants such as desmodium, centro, siratro, soybean, winged beanand field bean, the ¹⁵N value of the shoots was negative (–3.2).The ¹⁵N value of the shoots in winged bean and field bean variedby about 1 depending on the Rhizobium strains used. The isotopicmass balance of 13 legumes indicated that isotopic fractionationoccurs during N₂ fixation by the legume-rhizobia symbiosis witha preference for ¹⁴N over ¹⁵N, resulting in a ¹⁵N value of –0.2to –2 in the whole plant. The results indicate that ¹⁵N/¹⁴N isotopic discrimination witha preference for the lighter atom may occur in both N₂ fixationand export of fixed N from nodules. ¹Present address: Department of Soils and Fertilizers, NationalAgriculture Research Center, Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305,Japan. (Received October 8, 1985; Accepted April 7, 1986)     

Variations of Natural 15N Abundances in Leguminous Plants and Nodule Fractions

Natural ¹⁵N abundances of various tissues from twelve speciesof leguminous plants and those of nodule fractions from threespecies grown in Japan were determined by mass spectrometry.The ¹⁵N concentrations of non-nodular tissues of nodulated plantswere close to the value of atmospheric N₂. The nodules of soybean,mung bean, cowpea, kidney bean, adzuki bean, sword bean, whiteclover, Leucaena leucocephala, and horsegram showed highly elevated¹⁵N concentrations, and those of pea had a slightly enriched¹⁵N concentration compared to other tissue, while the nodulesof peanut and lucerne had ¹⁵N values similar to those of theirshoot tissues. The bacteroid fractions from horsegram, swordbean and peanut had higher ¹⁵N concentrations than the cytosolfractions. (Received March 17, 1984; Accepted August 21, 1984)     

植物乙醇酸氧化酶分离纯化方法的改进

通过缩短DEAE-Cellulose柱长度,加快流速并采用pH8.8的80mmol.L-1Tris-HCl为洗脱液,可在9小时内快速地从菠菜、菜心和豆角绿叶中纯化得到乙醇酸氧化酶。该酶具高活性(54.6～197.0U.mg-1)及高等电点(pI>10.0)。产率为4.1%～71.5%,纯化倍数为21.6～122.68。经SDS-PAGE检测均有40kD带,表明3种植物乙醇酸氧化酶的亚基大小无区别。     

植物乙醇酸氧化酶分离纯化方法的改进

通过缩短DEAE-Cellulose柱长度, 加快流速并采用pH8.8的80 mmol.L-1 Tris-HCl为洗脱液, 可在9小时内快速地从菠菜、菜心和豆角绿叶中纯化得到乙醇酸氧化酶。该酶具高活性(54.6～197.0 U.mg-1)及高等电点(pI >10.0)。产率为4.1%～71.5%, 纯化倍数为21.6～122.68。经SDS-PAGE检测均有40 kD带,表明3种植物乙醇酸氧化酶的亚基大小无区别。     

Advanced formulation of base pair changes in the stem regions of ribosomal RNAs; its application to mitochondrial rRNAs for resolving the phylogeny of animals

The ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) of animal mitochondria, especially those of arthropod mitochondria, have a higher content of G:U and U:G base pairs in their stem regions than the nuclear rRNAs. Thus, the theoretical formulation of base pair changes is extended to incorporate the faster base pair changes A:U<-->G:U<-->G:C and U:A<-->U:G<-->C:G into the previous formulation of the slower base pair changes between A:U, G:C, C:G and U:A. The relative base pair change probability containing the faster and slower base pair changes is theoretically derived to estimate the divergence time of rRNAs under the influence of selection for these base pairs. Using the cartilaginous fish-teleost fish divergence and the crustacean-insect divergence as calibration points, the present method successfully predicts the divergence times of the main branches of animals: Deuterostomia and Protostomia diverged 9.2 x 10(8) years ago, the divergence of Echinodermata, Hemichordata and Cephalochordata succeedingly occurred during the period from 8 x 10(8) to 6 x 10(8) years ago, while Arthropoda, Annelida and Mollusca diverged almost concomitantly about 7 x 10(8) years ago. The dating for the divergence of Platyhelminthes and Cnidaria is traced back to 1.2 x 10(9) years ago. This result is consistent with the fossil records in the Stirling Range Formation of southwestern Australia, the Ediacara and Avalon faunas and the Cambrian Burgess Shale. Thus, the present method may be useful for estimating the divergence times of animals ranging from 10(8) to 10(9) years ago, resolving the difficult problems, e.g. deviation from rate constancy and large sampling variances, in the usual methods of treating apparent change rates between individual bases and/or base pairs.     

Phylogeny of Organisms Investigated by the Base-Pair Changes in the Stem Regions of Small and Large Ribosomal Subunit RNAs

In order to obtain the evolutionary distance data that are as purely additive as possible, we have developed a novel method for evaluating the evolutionary distances from the base-pair changes in stem regions of ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs). The application of this method to small-subunit (SSU) and large-subunit (LSU) rRNAs provides the distance data, with which both the unweighted pair group method of analysis and the neighbor-joining method give almost the same tree topology of most organisms except for some Protoctista, thermophilic bacteria, parasitic organisms, and endosymbionts. Although the evolutionary distances calculated with LSU rRNAs are somewhat longer than those with SSU rRNAs, the difference, probably due to a slight difference in functional constraint, is substantially decreased when the distances are converted into the divergence times of organisms by the measure of the time scale estimated in each type of rRNAs. The divergence times of main branches agree fairly well with the geological record of organisms, at least after the appearance of oxygen-releasing photosynthesis, although the divergence times of Eukaryota, Archaebacteria, and Eubacteria are somewhat overestimated in comparison with the geological record of Earth formation. This result is explained by considering that the mutation rate is determined by the accumulation of misrepairs for DNA damage caused by radiation and that the effect of radiation had been stronger before the oxygen molecules became abundant in the atmosphere of the Earth. Received: 23 October 1997 / Accepted: 12 August 1998