Structural and sequence motifs in dermatan sulfate for promoting fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2) and FGF-7 activity

Glycosaminoglycans have been implicated in the binding and activation of a variety of growth factors, cytokines, and chemokines. In this way, glycosaminoglycans are thought to participate in events such as development and wound repair. In particular, heparin and heparan sulfate have been well studied, and specific aspects of their structure dictate their participation in a variety of activities. In contrast, although dermatan sulfate participates in many of the same biological processes as heparin and heparan sulfate, the interactions of dermatan sulfate have been less well studied. Dermatan sulfate is abundant in the wound environment and binds and activates growth factors such as fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2) and FGF-7, which are present during the wound repair process. To determine the minimum size and sulfation content of active dermatan sulfate oligosaccharides, dermatan sulfate was first digested and then separated by size exclusion high pressure liquid chromatography, and the activity to facilitate FGF-2 and FGF-7 was assayed by the cellular proliferation of cell lines expressing FGFR1 or FGFR2 IIIb. The minimum size required for the activation of FGF-2 was an octasaccharide and for FGF-7 a decasaccharide. Active fractions were rich in monosulfated, primarily 4-O-sulfated, disaccharides and iduronic acid. Increasing the sulfation to primarily 2/4-O-sulfated and 2/6-O-sulfated disaccharides did not increase activity. Cell proliferation decreased or was abolished with higher sulfated dermatan sulfate preparations. This indicated a preference for specific dermatan sulfate oligosaccharides capable of promoting FGF-2- and FGF-7-dependent cell proliferation. These data identify critical oligosaccharides that promote specific members of the FGF family that are important for wound repair and angiogenesis.     

Behavioral response of manatees to variations in environmental sound levels

Florida manatees (Trichechus manatus latirostris) inhabit coastal regions because they feed on the aquatic vegetation that grows in shallow waters, which are the same areas where human activities are greatest. Noise produced from anthropogenic and natural sources has the potential to affect these animals by eliciting responses ranging from mild behavioral changes to extreme aversion. Sound levels were calculated from recordings made throughout behavioral observation periods. An information theoretic approach was used to investigate the relationship between behavior patterns and sound level. Results indicated that elevated sound levels affect manatee activity and are a function of behavioral state. The proportion of time manatees spent feeding and milling changed in response to sound level. When ambient sound levels were highest, more time was spent in the directed, goal‐oriented behavior of feeding, whereas less time was spent engaged in undirected behavior such as milling. This work illustrates how shifts in activity of individual manatees may be useful parameters for identifying impacts of noise on manatees and might inform population level effects.     

Bioturbation in matgrounds at Lake Bogoria in the Kenya Rift Valley: implications for interpreting the heterogeneous early Cambrian seafloor

Modern burrowing organisms feed on microbial organic matter in matgrounds near hot springs on the margins of Lake Bogoria, a saline alkaline lake in the Kenya Rift Valley. The burrowers produce a low-diversity trace assemblage similar to those produced by undermat miners during the Ediacaran–Cambrian transition. Despite obvious differences in body plans and phylogenetic affinities, these modern animals feed on microbes in similar ways to those inferred for primitive bilaterians. With increasing distance from hot-spring vents, outflow channels and adjacent matgrounds, the diversity and depth of the traces increase and mixgrounds become dominant. This modern extreme environment gives clues for interpreting the heterogeneous early Cambrian seafloor, with: (1) the restriction of ‘pre-agronomic revolution’ matground substrates; and (2) expansion of adjacent ‘post-agronomic revolution’ mixground areas.     

A Technique to Screen American Beech for Resistance to the Beech Scale Insect (Cryptococcus fagisuga Lind.)

Beech bark disease (BBD) results in high levels of initial mortality, leaving behind survivor trees that are greatly weakened and deformed. The disease is initiated by feeding activities of the invasive beech scale insect, Cryptococcus fagisuga, which creates entry points for infection by one of the Neonectria species of fungus. Without scale infestation, there is little opportunity for fungal infection. Using scale eggs to artificially infest healthy trees in heavily BBD impacted stands demonstrated that these trees were resistant to the scale insect portion of the disease complex¹. Here we present a protocol that we have developed, based on the artificial infestation technique by Houston², which can be used to screen for scale-resistant trees in the field and in smaller potted seedlings and grafts. The identification of scale-resistant trees is an important component of management of BBD through tree improvement programs and silvicultural manipulation.     

Histone Deacetylase Classes I and II Regulate Kaposi's Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus Reactivation

In primary effusion lymphoma (PEL) cells infected with latent Kaposi''s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), the promoter of the viral lytic switch gene, Rta, is organized into bivalent chromatin, similar to cellular developmental switch genes. Histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors (HDACis) reactivate latent KSHV and dramatically remodel the viral genome topology and chromatin architecture. However, reactivation is not uniform across a population of infected cells. We sought to identify an HDACi cocktail that would uniformly reactivate KSHV and reveal the regulatory HDACs. Using HDACis with various specificities, we found that class I HDACis were sufficient to reactivate the virus but differed in potency. Valproic acid (VPA) was the most effective HDACi, inducing lytic cycle gene expression in 75% of cells, while trichostatin A (TSA) induced less widespread lytic gene expression and inhibited VPA-stimulated reactivation. VPA was only slightly superior to TSA in inducing histone acetylation of Rta''s promoter, but only VPA induced significant production of infectious virus, suggesting that HDAC regulation after Rta expression has a dramatic effect on reactivation progression. Ectopic HDACs 1, 3, and 6 inhibited TPA-stimulated KSHV reactivation. Surprisingly, ectopic HDACs 1 and 6 stimulated reactivation independently, suggesting that the stoichiometries of HDAC complexes are critical for the switch. Tubacin, a specific inhibitor of the ubiquitin-binding, proautophagic HDAC6, also inhibited VPA-stimulated reactivation. Immunofluorescence indicated that HDAC6 is expressed diffusely throughout latently infected cells, but its expression level and nuclear localization is increased during reactivation. Overall, our data suggest that inhibition of HDAC classes I and IIa and maintenance of HDAC6 (IIb) activity are required for optimal KSHV reactivation.