Dosage-Dependent Severity of the Phenotype in Patients with Mental Retardation Due to a Recurrent Copy-Number Gain at Xq28 Mediated by an Unusual Recombination

We report on the identification of a 0.3 Mb inherited recurrent but variable copy-number gain at Xq28 in affected males of four unrelated families with X-linked mental retardation (MR). All aberrations segregate with the disease in the families, and the carrier mothers show nonrandom X chromosome inactivation. Tiling Xq28-region-specific oligo array revealed that all aberrations start at the beginning of the low copy repeat LCR-K1, at position 153.20 Mb, and end just distal to LCR-L2, at 153.54 Mb. The copy-number gain always includes 18 annotated genes, of which RPL10, ATP6AP1 and GDI1 are highly expressed in brain. From these, GDI1 is the most likely candidate gene. Its copy number correlates with the severity of clinical features, because it is duplicated in one family with nonsyndromic moderate MR, is triplicated in males from two families with mild MR and additional features, and is present in five copies in a fourth family with a severe syndromic form of MR. Moreover, expression analysis revealed copy-number-dependent increased mRNA levels in affected patients compared to control individuals. Interestingly, analysis of the breakpoint regions suggests a recombination mechanism that involves two adjacent but different sets of low copy repeats. Taken together, our data strongly suggest that an increased expression of GDI1 results in impaired cognition in a dosage-dependent manner. Moreover, these data also imply that a copy-number gain of an individual gene present in the larger genomic aberration that leads to the severe MECP2 duplication syndrome can of itself result in a clinical phenotype as well.     

The human Vps29 retromer component is a metallo-phosphoesterase for a cation-independent mannose 6-phosphate receptor substrate peptide

The retromer complex is involved in the retrograde transport of the CI-M6PR (cation-independent mannose 6-phosphate receptor) from endosomes to the Golgi. It is a hetero-trimeric complex composed of Vps26 (vacuolar sorting protein 26), Vps29 and Vps35 proteins, which are conserved in eukaryote evolution. Recently, elucidation of the crystal structure of Vps29 revealed that Vps29 contains a metallo-phosphoesterase fold [Wang, Guo, Liang, Fan, Zhu, Zang, Zhu, Li, Teng, Niu et al. (2005) J. Biol. Chem. 280, 22962-22967; Collins, Skinner, Watson, Seaman and Owen (2005) Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol. 12, 594-602]. We demonstrate that recombinant hVps29 (human Vps29) displays in vitro phosphatase activity towards a serine-phosphorylated peptide, containing the acidic-cluster dileucine motif of the cytoplasmatic tail of the CI-M6PR. Efficient dephosphorylation required the additional presence of recombinant hVps26 and hVps35 proteins, which interact with hVps29. Phosphatase activity of hVps29 was greatly decreased by alanine substitutions of active-site residues that are predicted to co-ordinate metal ions. Using inductively coupled plasma MS, we demonstrate that recombinant hVps29 binds zinc. Moreover, hVps29-dependent phosphatase activity is greatly reduced by non-specific and zinc-specific metal ion chelators, which can be completely restored by addition of excess ZnCl2. The binuclear Zn2+ centre and phosphate group were modelled into the hVps29 catalytic site and pKa calculations provided further insight into the molecular mechanisms of Vps29 phosphatase activity. We conclude that the retromer complex displays Vps29-dependent in vitro phosphatase activity towards a serinephosphorylated acidic-cluster dileucine motif that is involved in endosomal trafficking of the CI-M6PR. The potential significance of these findings with respect to regulation of transport of cycling trans-Golgi network proteins is discussed.     

Simian Rotaviruses Possess Divergent Gene Constellations That Originated from Interspecies Transmission and Reassortment

Although few simian rotaviruses (RVs) have been isolated, such strains have been important for basic research and vaccine development. To explore the origins of simian RVs, the complete genome sequences of strains PTRV (G8P[1]), RRV (G3P[3]), and TUCH (G3P[24]) were determined. These data allowed the genotype constellations of each virus to be determined and the phylogenetic relationships of the simian strains with each other and with nonsimian RVs to be elucidated. The results indicate that PTRV was likely transmitted from a bovine or other ruminant into pig-tailed macaques (its host of origin), since its genes have genotypes and encode outer-capsid proteins similar to those of bovine RVs. In contrast, most of the genes of rhesus-macaque strains, RRV and TUCH, have genotypes more typical of canine-feline RVs. However, the sequences of the canine and/or feline (canine/feline)-like genes of RRV and TUCH are only distantly related to those of modern canine/feline RVs, indicating that any potential transmission of a progenitor of these viruses from a canine/feline host to a simian host was not recent. The remaining genes of RRV and TUCH appear to have originated through reassortment with bovine, human, or other RV strains. Finally, comparison of PTRV, RRV, and TUCH genes with those of the vervet-monkey RV SA11-H96 (G3P[2]) indicates that SA11-H96 shares little genetic similarity to other simian strains and likely has evolved independently. Collectively, our data indicate that simian RVs are of diverse ancestry with genome constellations that originated largely by interspecies transmission and reassortment with nonhuman animal RVs.Group A rotaviruses (RVs) are a major cause of acute dehydrating diarrhea in infants and children under the age of 5 years worldwide. These infections lead to approximately 527,000 deaths each year, the vast majority occurring in developing countries (33). RVs are also responsible for gastroenteritis in many other animal species, notably mammals and birds (16, 38). RVs are members of the family Reoviridae and possess a genome consisting of 11 segments of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). The prototypic genome of a group A RV encodes six structural proteins (VP) and six nonstructural proteins (NSP) (5). The mature RV virion is a nonenveloped triple-layered icosahedral particle. The inner most protein layer is formed by the core lattice protein VP2. Attached to the interior surface of the VP2 layer near the fivefold axes are complexes of the viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase VP1 and the RNA capping enzyme VP3. Collectively, VP1, VP2, VP3, and the dsRNA genome form the core of the virion (5, 11). The core is surrounded by VP6, the sole constituent of the intermediate protein layer of the virion. The antigenic properties of VP6 are used in classifying RV isolates into groups. The outer protein layer of the virion is composed of trimers of the VP7 glycoprotein penetrated by spikes of the VP4 attachment protein (50). The properties of VP7 and VP4 form the basis of a dual classification system defining RV G types (glycosylated) and P types (protease sensitive), respectively. At present, 23 G genotypes and 31 P genotypes have been recognized in the literature based on sequence analyses (17, 39, 42, 45, 47). Recently, a comprehensive sequence-based classification system was established for the RVs which, together with a uniform nomenclature, allows each genome segment of the virus to be assigned to a particular genotype. In the comprehensive classification system, the acronym Gx-P[x]-Ix-Rx-Cx-Mx-Ax-Nx-Tx-Ex-Hx defines the genotypes of VP7-VP4-VP6-VP1-VP2-VP3-NSP1-NSP2-NSP3-NSP4-NSP5 encoding genome segments (17, 18).Several years ago, Nakagomi et al. provided evidence by RNA-RNA hybridization assays that RVs originating from different animal species could be resolved into genogroups based upon the existence of unique species-specific genome constellations (29-31). More recently, the concept that RVs preferentially retain certain species-related genome constellations has been further supported by whole-genome sequencing (8, 24). For human RVs, two major genogroups (Wa-like genogroup 1 and DS-1-like genogroup 2) and one minor genogroup (AU-1-like genogroup 3) have been described (8, 17, 30). Although these genogroups are generally species specific, it is believed that the human AU-1 genogroup is of feline origin (31) and that the human Wa and DS-1 genogroups share common ancestor with porcine and bovine RVs, respectively (17). Another recent study based on full genome sequence data has indicated that the rarely seen human G3P[3] RVs are of feline or canine origin (46). Two additional sequence-based studies have indicated that human RVs with P[14] specificity may have originated after interspecies transmission from rabbit RVs and RVs from hosts belonging to the order Artiodactyla (i.e., hoofed mammals with even toes, including ruminants and pigs) (19, 20). These examples indicate that interspecies transmission of entire RV gene constellations from one host species to another may contribute significantly to viral evolution. In addition to interspecies transmission, complete genome sequencing of RVs have revealed multiple examples of naturally occurring inter- and intragenogroup reassortment (17, 19, 21-23, 37, 41).The simian RV strains, notably RRV and the SA11 derivatives (e.g., SA11-Cl3 and SA11-4F), have been used extensively as models in the study of all aspects of RV biology, including characterizing genome replication and virion assembly, delineating high-resolution structures of viral proteins and the virion capsid, and describing the functions of viral proteins. Moreover, the RRV strain was used to create a set of human-simian reassortant viruses that formed the basis of the first commercially licensed RV vaccine (Rotashield; Wyeth Laboratories) (10). Serological analyses have indicated that simian RVs are probably endemic in wild nonhuman primate (NHP) species in Africa (32). However, whether or not unique genogroups or preferred genome constellation exist for the simian RVs has not been determined, because of the lack of comprehensive genetic data. Most simian RVs isolated to date (e.g., rhesus macaque viruses RRV [43] and TUCH [25] and the pig-tailed macaque virus PTRV [9]) have been recovered from monkeys kept in captivity in the United States. An important exception is the SA11 isolate, which was recovered from a vervet monkey in South Africa (15). Simian RV infections occur mostly in young monkeys, similar to human RV infections in children (32, 40).To gain further insight into the origins and properties of simian RVs, we sequenced and contrasted the genomes of PTRV, RRV, and TUCH with other RVs, including SA11-H96 (G3P[2]), the only previously fully sequenced simian RV (41). Our results reveal that these four simian RVs are of divergent ancestry and have evolved by combinations of interspecies transmission and reassortment with RVs naturally occurring in other animal species. Thus, the simian RVs do not possess a common genome constellation nor define a unique genogroup. Although frequently used as disease models, the simian RVs show limited genetic similarity with the human RVs (genogroups 1 and 2) responsible for most human disease.     

Early Aggregation Steps in α-Synuclein as Measured by FCS and FRET: Evidence for a Contagious Conformational Change

The kinetics of aggregation of α-synuclein are usually studied by turbidity or Thio-T fluorescence. Here we follow the disappearance of monomers and the formation of early oligomers using fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. Alexa488-labeled A140C-synuclein was used as a fluorescent probe in trace amounts in the presence of excess unlabeled α-synuclein. Repeated short measurements produce a distribution of diffusion coefficients. Initially, a sharp peak is obtained corresponding to monomers, followed by a distinct transient population and the gradual formation of broader-sized distributions of higher oligomers. The kinetics of aggregation can be followed by the decreasing number of fast-diffusing species. Both the disappearance of fast-diffusing species and the appearance of turbidity can be fitted to the Finke-Watzky equation, but the apparent rate constants obtained are different. This reflects the fact that the disappearance of fast species occurs largely during the lag phase of turbidity development, due to the limited sensitivity of turbidity to the early aggregation process. The nucleation of the early oligomers is concentration-dependent and accompanied by a conformational change that precedes β-structure formation, and can be visualized using fluorescence resonance energy transfer between the donor-labeled N-terminus and the acceptor-labeled cysteine in the mutant A140C.     

Near‐future pH conditions severely impact calcification,metabolism and the nervous system in the pteropod Heliconoides inflatus

Shelled pteropods play key roles in the global carbon cycle and food webs of various ecosystems. Their thin external shell is sensitive to small changes in pH, and shell dissolution has already been observed in areas where aragonite saturation state is ~1. A decline in pteropod abundance has the potential to disrupt trophic networks and directly impact commercial fisheries. Therefore, it is crucial to understand how pteropods will be affected by global environmental change, particularly ocean acidification. In this study, physiological and molecular approaches were used to investigate the response of the Mediterranean pteropod, Heliconoides inflatus, to pH values projected for 2100 under a moderate emissions trajectory (RCP6.0). Pteropods were subjected to pH_T 7.9 for 3 days, and gene expression levels, calcification and respiration rates were measured relative to pH_T 8.1 controls. Gross calcification decreased markedly under low pH conditions, while genes potentially involved in calcification were up‐regulated, reflecting the inability of pteropods to maintain calcification rates. Gene expression data imply that under low pH conditions, both metabolic processes and protein synthesis may be compromised, while genes involved in acid–base regulation were up‐regulated. A large number of genes related to nervous system structure and function were also up‐regulated in the low pH treatment, including a GABA_A receptor subunit. This observation is particularly interesting because GABA_A receptor disturbances, leading to altered behavior, have been documented in several other marine animals after exposure to elevated CO₂. The up‐regulation of many genes involved in nervous system function suggests that exposure to low pH could have major effects on pteropod behavior. This study illustrates the power of combining physiological and molecular approaches. It also reveals the importance of behavioral analyses in studies aimed at understanding the impacts of low pH on marine animals.     

The Association between Belgian Older Adults’ Physical Functioning and Physical Activity: What Is the Moderating Role of the Physical Environment?

Background

Better physical functioning in the elderly may be associated with higher physical activity levels. Since older adults spend a substantial part of the day in their residential neighborhood, the neighborhood physical environment may moderate associations between functioning and older adults’ physical activity. The present study investigated the moderating role of the objective and perceived physical environment on associations between Belgian older adults’ physical functioning and transport walking, recreational walking, and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity.

Methods

Data from 438 older adults were included. Objective physical functioning was assessed using the Short Physical Performance Battery. Potential moderators included objective neighborhood walkability and perceptions of land use mix diversity, access to recreational facilities, access to services, street connectivity, physical barriers for walking, aesthetics, crime-related safety, traffic speeding-related safety, and walking infrastructure. Transport and recreational walking were self-reported, moderate-to-vigorous physical activity was assessed through accelerometers. Multi-level regression analyses were conducted using MLwiN to examine two-way interactions between functioning and the environment on both walking outcomes. Based on a previous study where environment x neighborhood income associations were found for Belgian older adults’ moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, three-way functioning x environment x income interactions were examined for moderate-to-vigorous physical activity.

Results

Objectively-measured walkability moderated the association between functioning and transport walking; this positive association was only present in high-walkable neighborhoods. Moreover, a three-way interaction was observed for moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. Only in high-income, high-walkable neighborhoods, there was a positive association between functioning and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. No functioning x walkability interactions were observed for recreational walking, and none of the perceived environmental variables moderated the positive association between physical functioning and the physical activity outcomes.

Conclusions

For older adults with better physical functioning, living in a high-walkable neighborhood could be beneficial to engage in more transport walking. Living in high-income, high-walkable neighborhoods and having better functioning might also be beneficial for more engagement in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. This might suggest a protective role of neighborhood walkability for preventing declining physical functioning and consequently decreasing physical activity levels in older adults. However, given the cross-sectional design of the present study, this suggestion needs to be confirmed through longitudinal assessment investigating over-time changes in the observed associations.     

Canalisation in the wild: effects of developmental conditions on physiological traits are inversely linked to their association with fitness

Ecological conditions affect fitness, but mechanisms causing such effects are not well known, while evolved responses to environmental variation may depend on the underlying mechanisms. Consequences of environmental conditions vary strongly between traits, but a framework to interpret such variation is lacking. We propose that variation in trait response may be explained by differential canalisation, with traits with larger fitness effects showing weaker responses to environmental perturbations due to preferential resource allocation to such traits. We tested the canalisation hypothesis using brood size manipulation in wild jackdaw nestlings in which we measured eight physiological traits (mainly oxidative stress markers), and two feather traits. For each trait, we estimated manipulation response and association with fitness (over‐winter survival). As predicted, a strong negative correlation emerged between manipulation response and association with fitness (r =?0.76). We discuss the consequences of differential trait canalisation for the study of mechanisms mediating environmental effects on fitness.     

The role of HEXOKINASE1 in Arabidopsis leaf growth

Plant Molecular Biology - Here, we used a hxk1 mutant in the Col-0 background. We demonstrated that HXK1 regulates cell proliferation and expansion early during leaf development, and that HXK1 is...