Roles of TRAF3 in T cells: many surprises

Tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR)-associated factor 3 (TRAF3) is broadly involved in different receptor-mediated signaling pathways. Considerable progress was made recently in understanding the role of TRAF3 in T cell biology. Here we review these new findings about how TRAF3 participates in T cell development and function. The different roles of TRAF3 in distinct immune cells are also compared. That TRAF3 is required for T cell effector functions, and invariant Natural Killer T cell function and development, was unexpected. Another surprising finding is that TRAF3 normally restrains regulatory T cell development. It is now clear that TRAF3 regulates signaling to T cells not only through costimulatory members of the TNFR superfamily, but also through the T cell receptor complex, and cytokine receptors. The diverse roles it plays support the multifaceted nature of this molecule. How TRAF3 mediates integration of different signaling cascades is an important topic for future study.     

The dynamics of learning and behavioral flexibility

Fundamental to behavior is the capacity to distinguish beneficial from detrimental environmental stimuli. In this issue of Neuron, a new study by Morrison et?al. shows that underlying these processes are qualitatively different dynamical interactions between brain structures involved in processing the value of environmental stimuli.     

Rhinovirus infection induces extracellular matrix protein deposition in asthmatic and nonasthmatic airway smooth muscle cells

Airway remodeling, which includes increases in the extracellular matrix (ECM), is a characteristic feature of asthma and is correlated to disease severity. Rhinovirus (RV) infections are associated with increased risk of asthma development in young children and are the most common cause of asthma exacerbations. We examined whether viral infections can increase ECM deposition and whether this increased ECM modulates cell proliferation and migration. RV infection of nonasthmatic airway smooth muscle (ASM) cells significantly increased the deposition of fibronectin (40% increase, n = 12) and perlecan (80% increase, n = 14), while infection of asthmatic ASM cells significantly increased fibronectin (75% increase, n = 9) and collagen IV (15% increase, n = 9). We then treated the ASM cells with the Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid, imiquimod, and pure RV RNA and were able to show that the mechanism through which RV induced ECM deposition was via the activation of TLR3 and TLR7/8. Finally, we assessed whether the virus-induced ECM was bioactive by measuring the amount of migration and proliferation of virus-naive cells that seeded onto the ECM. Basically, ECM from asthmatic ASM cells induced twofold greater migration of virus-naive ASM cells than ECM from nonasthmatic ASM cells, and these rates of migration were further increased on RV-modulated ECM. Increased migration on the RV-modulated ECM was not due to increased cell proliferation, as RV-modulated ECM decreased the proliferation of virus-naive cells. Our results suggest that viruses may contribute to airway remodeling through increased ECM deposition, which in turn may contribute to increased ASM mass via increased cell migration.     

MITOCHONDRIAL-DNA VARIATION IN THE CRESTED NEWT SUPERSPECIES: LIMITED CYTOPLASMIC GENE FLOW AMONG SPECIES

The crested newt has a widespread European distribution and encompasses four taxa recently elevated to full species: Triturus cristatus, T. carnifex, T. dobrogicus, and T. karelini. These are distinct on morphological, chromosomal, and isozymic grounds and have fairly sharp transition zones. A widespread survey (12 countries, 49 geographic sites, 210 individuals) of mtDNA variation (20–27 restriction enzyme sites mapped per individual) was made in order to 1) correlate mtDNA variation with morphological features defining the species, 2) determine the degree of differentiation within and among species, and 3) detect any introgression among species. The mtDNAs of these species were clearly differentiated (d = 3.9–7.1%). Additionally, geographic structuring was observed within T. carnifex and T. karelini, each displaying two divergent mitochondrial genome types (d = 3.5% and 4.7%, respectively). The other two (more northerly distributed) species were genetically homogeneous over most (T. cristatus) or all (T. dobrogicus) of their ranges. In the case of T. cristatus, one may infer bottlenecking as a result of Pleistocene glaciation events. This may also apply in part to T. dobrogicus, but high population connectedness and gene flow in this lowland river species may alone be sufficient for homogenization of mtDNA. Patterns of mtDNA variation were largely concordant with morphology; some interspecific mitochondrial gene flow was observed, but only close to or in the transition zones. Analyses of mapped restriction-site data by UPGMA and parsimony methods (using the closely related T. marmoratus as an outgroup) produce very similar dendrograms. The levels of divergence found concur with the systematics of the group, but the differentiation within T. carnifex and T. karelini is notable.     

Molecular Evolution of Prolactin in Primates

Pituitary prolactin, like growth hormone (GH) and several other protein hormones, shows an episodic pattern of molecular evolution in which sustained bursts of rapid change contrast with long periods of slow evolution. A period of rapid change occurred in the evolution of prolactin in primates, leading to marked sequence differences between human prolactin and that of nonprimate mammals. We have defined this burst more precisely by sequencing the coding regions of prolactin genes for a prosimian, the slow loris (Nycticebus pygmaeus), and a New World monkey, the marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). Slow loris prolactin is very similar in sequence to pig prolactin, so the episode of rapid change occurred during primate evolution, after the separation of lines leading to prosimians and higher primates. Marmoset prolactin is similar in sequence to human prolactin, so the accelerated evolution occurred before divergence of New World monkeys and Old World monkeys/apes. The burst of change was confined largely to coding sequence (nonsynonymous sites) for mature prolactin and is not marked in other components of the gene sequence. This and the observations that (1) there was no apparent loss of function during the episode of rapid evolution, (2) the rate of evolution slowed toward the basal rate after this burst, and (3) the distribution of substitutions in the prolactin molecule is very uneven support the idea that this episode of rapid change was due to positive adaptive selection. In the slow loris and marmoset there is no evidence for duplication of the prolactin gene, and evidence from another New World monkey (Cebus albifrons) and from the chimpanzee and human genome sequences, suggests that this is the general position in primates, contrasting with the situation for GH genes. The chimpanzee prolactin sequence differs from that of human at two residues and comparison of human and chimpanzee prolactin gene sequences suggests that noncoding regions associated with regulating expression may be evolving differently from other noncoding regions.     

A mutation in the variable repeat region of the aggrecan gene (AGC1) causes a form of spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia associated with severe, premature osteoarthritis

Spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia (SED) encompasses a heterogeneous group of disorders characterized by shortening of the trunk and limbs. The autosomal dominant SED type Kimberley (SEDK) is associated with premature degenerative arthropathy and has been previously mapped in a multigenerational family to a novel locus on 15q26.1. This locus contains the gene AGC1, which encodes aggrecan, the core protein of the most abundant proteoglycan of cartilage. We screened AGC1 for mutations and identified a single-base-pair insertion, within the variable repeat region of exon 12 in affected individuals from the family with SEDK, that introduces a frameshift of 212 amino acids, including 22 cysteine residues, followed by a premature stop codon. This is the first identification of an AGC1 mutation causing a human disorder. This finding extends the spectrum of mutated genes that may cause SED and thus will aid in the molecular delineation of this complex group of conditions.