Evidence of biotic resistance to exotic plant invasion in degraded Bornean forests

Intact tropical forests are generally considered to be resistant to invasions by exotic species, although the shrub Clidemia hirta (Melastomataceae) is highly invasive in tropical forests outside its native range. Release from natural enemies (e.g., herbivores and pathogens) contributes to C. hirta invasion success where native melastomes are absent, and here we examine the role of enemies when C. hirta co-occurs with native Melastomataceae species and associated herbivores and pathogens. We study 21 forest sites within agricultural landscapes in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo, recording herbivory rates in C. hirta and related native Melastoma spp. plants along two 100-m transects per site that varied in canopy cover. Overall, we found evidence of enemy release; C. hirta had significantly lower herbivory (median occurrence of herbivory per plant = 79% of leaves per plant; median intensity of herbivory per leaf = 6% of leaf area) than native melastomes (93% and 20%, respectively). Herbivory on C. hirta increased when closer to native Melastoma plants with high herbivory damage, and in more shaded locations, and was associated with fewer reproductive organs on C. hirta. This suggests host-sharing by specialist Melastomataceae herbivores is occurring and may explain why invasion success of C. hirta is lower on Borneo than at locations without related native species present. Thus, natural enemy populations may provide a “biological control service” to suppress invasions of exotic species (i.e., biotic resistance). However, lower herbivory pressures in more open canopy locations may make highly degraded forests within these landscapes more susceptible to invasion.     

Noninvasive semen collection from an adult orangutan

Preservation of the genetic diversity of the captive orangutan, especially the wild-caught founders, is critical in maintaining a long-term population in zoological parks. One solution to the problem of maintaining maximum genetic diversity would be to initiate a program of artificial insemination for genetically underrepresented individuals through the banking and interinstitutional use of cryopreserved semen. However, little is known about basic orangutan semen characteristics, and current methodology is inadequate to support such a program. In this paper, we report the results of semen collection from an adult Sumatran orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus abelli), using an artificial vagina without anesthesia or electrical stimulation. A total of 27 ejaculates were evaluated during a 1-year period. The total and liquid volumes of the ejaculates at 1 h following collection were 6.1 ± 0.6 ml and 2.6 ± 0.4 ml, respectively (mean ± SEM). The liquid portion continued to exude semen for 2 h; however, 90% of the motile sperm was exuded within the first 30 min. The total number of sperm in the ejaculate was 164 ± 10⁶ ± 16.5, and the percentage of motile cells was 60 ± 2.7%. We conclude that the artificial vagina provides a promising technique for semen collection in the orangutan, and view these results as an initial step in developing methods for in vitro sperm capacitation, sperm cryopreservation, and artificial insemination. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Effects of media composition on substrate removal by pure and mixed bacterial cultures

Continuous culture experiments with identical experimental designs were run with a mixed microbial community of activated sludge origin and an axenic bacterial culture derived from it. Each culture received 2-chlorophenol (2-CP) at a concentration of 160 mg/L as COD and L-lysine at a concentration of 65 mg/L as COD. A factorial experimental design was employed with dilution rate and media composition as the two controlled variables. Three dilution rates were studied: 0.015, 0.0325, and 0.05 h^–1. Media composition was changed by adding four biogenic compounds (butyric acid, thymine, glutamic acid and lactose) in equal COD proportions at total concentrations of 0, 34, 225, and 1462 mg/L as COD. The measured variables were the effluent concentrations of 2-CP as measured by the 4-aminoantipyrene test and lysine as measured by the o-diacetylbenzene procedure. The results suggest that community structure and substrate composition play important roles in the response of a microbial community to mixed substrates. The addition of more biogenic substrates to the axenic culture had a deleterious effect on the removal of both lysine and 2-CP, although the effect was much larger on lysine removal. In contrast, additional substrates had a positive effect on the removal of 2-CP by the mixed community and much less of a negative effect on the removal of lysine. The dilution rate at which the cultures were growing had relatively little impact on the responses to the additional substrates.Abbreviations COD chemical oxygen demand - 2-CP 2-chlorophenol - DOC dissolved organic carbon - MDL method detection limit - SS suspended solids     

MORPHOLOGICAL EVOLUTION IN MUROID RODENTS II. CRANIOMETRIC FACTOR DIVERGENCE IN SEVEN NEOTROPICAL GENERA,WITH EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FROM ZYGODONTOMYS

First principal components extracted from covariance matrices of log-transformed craniodental measurements closely approximate general size factors within field-collected samples representing 14 species in seven Neotropical muroid genera; because these samples are mixed-cross-sectional, scores are age-correlated and coefficients reflect postweaning growth allometries. Compared between congeners, sample first principal component coefficients are very similar, an observation that implies a nearly parallel orientation of ontogenetic trajectories in log-measurement space. On the assumption that a common general size factor (estimated as the first principal component of the pooled-within covariance matrix) accounts for most of the observed measurement covariance within samples, size-adjusted differences between congeneric species were estimated variable-by-variable in separate analyses of covariance; these differences reflect developmental adjustments of craniodental morphology that precede the measured interval of postweaning ontogeny. Vectors of size-adjusted difference coefficients are not similar from genus to genus, and a diversity of causal mechanisms is probably responsible. Analyses of captive-bred samples from two “species” of Zygodontomys provide prima facie evidence that size-adjusted differences estimated from field-collected samples have a genetic basis. Postweaning growth allometries in the muroid head skeleton may be conserved due to the biomechanical constraints of masticatory function; the apparent evolutionary plasticity of earlier ontogenetic adjustments may reflect the absence of such constraints in the fetus or suckling pup. The relevance of these results for current theories concerning the developmental genetics of mammalian morphometric evolution is discussed.     

MORPHOLOGICAL EVOLUTION IN MUROID RODENTS I. CONSERVATIVE PATTERNS OF CRANIOMETRIC COVARIANCE AND THEIR ONTOGENETIC BASIS IN THE NEOTROPICAL GENUS ZYGODONTOMYS

Analyses of craniodental measurement data from 15 wild-collected population samples of the Neotropical muroid rodent genus Zygodontomys reveal consistent patterns of relative variability and correlation that suggest a common latent structure. Eigenanalysis of each sample covariance matrix of logarithms yields a first principal component that accounts for a large fraction of the total variance. Variances of subsequent sample principal components are much smaller, and the results of bootstrap resampling together with asymptotic statistics suggest that characteristic roots of the covariance matrix after the first are seldom distinct. The coefficients of normalized first principal components are strikingly similar from sample to sample: inner products of these vectors reveal an average between-sample correlation of 0.989, and the mean angle of divergence is only about eight degrees. Since first principal component coefficients identify the same contrasts among variables as comparisons of relative variability and correlation, we conclude that a single factor accounts for most of the common latent determination of these sample dispersions. Analyses of variance based on toothwear (a coarse index of age) and sex in the wild-collected samples, and on known age and sex in a captive-bred population, reveal that specimen scores on sample first principal components are age- and sex-dependent; residual sample dispersion, however, is essentially unaffected by age, sex, or age × sex interaction. The sample first principal component therefore reflects the covariance among measured dimensions induced by general growth, and its coefficients are interpretable as exponents of postnatal growth allometry. Path-analytic models that incorporate prior knowledge of the equivalent allometric effects of general growth within these samples can be used to decompose the between-sample variance by factors corresponding to other ontogenetic mechanisms of form change. The genetic or environmental determinants of differences in sample mean phenotypes induced by such mechanisms, however, can be demonstrated only by experiment.     

Social organization in a wild population ofCallithrix jacchus: II. Intragroup social behavior

The social behavior of the common marmoset has been well studied in captivity, but little is known about the social dynamics of this species in its natural habitat. Social relationships were studied in three polygynous groups of common marmosets,Callithrix jacchus, in northeastern Brazil. Breeding adults appeared to be the center of social life and were the most frequent grooming partners or nearest neighbors for most adult group members. The observations of unidirectional agonistic interactions suggest that breeding adults were also dominant over all other group members, but that neither sex was dominant over the other. The dynamics of within-group social relationships are likely to be important determinants in the reproductive strategies employed by marmoset females.     

OPTIMIZATION OF AN IMMUNOFLUORESCENT ASSAY OF THE INTERNAL ENZYME RIBULOSE-1,5-BISPHOSPHATE CARBOXYLASE (RUBISCO) IN SINGLE PHYTOPLANKTON CELLS1

Immunochemical probes are widely used to identih different species and to quantify and understand the role that different antigens play within cells. We optimized a single-cell immunofluorescent assay for the carbon fixation enzyme ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase (Rubisco) in order to quantify the enzyme by flow cytometry in phytoplankton cells. The criteria for optimization of the immunofluorescent assay for Rubisco in single cells included maximization of Rubisco immunogenicity, minimization of Rubisco diffusion out of the cells, minimization of cell breakage, and maximization of the cell labeling. Several fixatives (cross-linkers and denaturing) and permeabilizing agents were tested on 26 species of phytoplankton. The only fixative / permeabilizing agent that fulfilled the criteria established for the assay was 96% ethanol. Phytoplankton cells collected from the field needed further treatment with a strong oxidant to permeabilize ethanolfixed cells and thus allow the antibody probe to access the Rubisco antigen. This study should have a general applicability to the study of other soluble photosynthetic antigens in single phytoplankton cells.     

A redescription of Heterocotyle pastinacae Scott, 1904 (Monogenea: Monocotylidae) from Dasyatis pastinaca (Dasyatididae), with a neotype designation

Heterocotyle pastinacae Scott, 1904 is redescribed and a neotype is designated. H. pastinacae is most easily distinguished from other members of the genus by the elaborate arrangement of sclerotised spines in the vagina. The male copulatory organ also serves to differentiate it from other species in the genus. A possible function for the vaginal spines and unique form of the male copulatory organ is discussed. The use of head organ number as a generic character is considered questionable.