ON THE DEFINITIONS AND FUNCTIONS OF DOMINANCE AND TERRITORIALITY

1. Dominance/subordinance is a relationship between two individuals in which one defers to the other in contest situations. Each such relationship represents an adaptive compromise for each individual in which the benefits and costs of giving in or not giving in are compared. Familiar associates in groups or neighbours on nearby territories may develop relatively stable dominant-subordinate relationships based on individual recognition. Although the aggressive aspects of dominance are usually emphasized, the less conspicuous actions of the subordinate individual are actually more important in maintaining a stable relationship. 2. In evolutionary terms, dominance essentially equals priority of access to resources in short supply. Usually the subordinate, who would probably lose in combat anyway, is better off to bide its time until better able to compete at another time or another place. Both individuals save time, energy, and the risk of injury by recognizing and abiding by an established dominant-subordinate relationship. 3. Dominance can be either absolute or predictably reversible in different locations or at different times. Of the various forms of dominance behaviour, rank hierarchies and territoriality represent the two extremes of absolute and relative dominance, respectively. A dominance hierarchy is the sum total of the adaptive compromises made between individuals in an aggregation or organized group. Many animals seem to be capable of both absolute and relative dominance, and within species-specific limits the balance may shift toward one or the other. High density, or a decrease in available resources, favours a shift from relative to absolute dominance. Some species may exhibit both simultaneously. Social mammals may have intra-group hierarchies and reciprocal territoriality between groups, while the males of lek species may exhibit ‘polarized territoriality’ by defending small individual territories, with the most dominant males holding the central territories where most of the mating takes place. 4. Territoriality is a form of space-related dominance. Most biologists agree that its most important function is to provide the territory holder with an assured supply of critical resources. Territoriality is selected for only when the individual's genetic fitness is increased because its increased access to resources outweighs the time, energy, and injury costs of territorial behaviour. 5. Territoriality was first defined narrowly as an area from which conspecifics are excluded by overt defence or advertisement. The definition has been variously expanded to include all more or less exclusive areas without regard to possible defence, and finally to include all areas in which the owner is dominant. I define territory as a fixed portion of an individual's or group's range in which it has priority of access to one or more critical resources over others who have priority elsewhere or at another time. This priority of access must be achieved through social interaction. 6. My definition excludes dominance over individual space and moving resources, and includes areas of exclusive use maintained by mutual avoidance. It differs from most other definitions in its explicit recognition of time as a territorial parameter and its rejection of exclusivity and overt defence as necessary components of territorial behaviour. There is an indivisible continuum of degrees of trespass onto territories, and functionally it is priority of access to resources that is important rather than exclusive occupancy. 7. There is a similarly indivisible continuum in the intensity of behaviour needed to achieve priority of access to resources. Deciding whether or not an exclusive area is defended leads to the pointless exercise of trying to decide which cues indicating the owner's presence are conspicuous enough to merit being called defence. Concentrating on overt defence emphasizes the aggressive aspects of territorial behaviour rather than the equally or more important submissive aspects such as passive avoidance.     

Integrative taxonomy,or iterative taxonomy?

The recently introduced term ‘integrative taxonomy’ refers to taxonomy that integrates all available data sources to frame species limits. We survey current taxonomic methods available to delimit species that integrate a variety of data, including molecular and morphological characters. A literature review of empirical studies using the term ‘integrative taxonomy’ assessed the kinds of data being used to frame species limits, and methods of integration. Almost all studies are qualitative and comparative – we are a long way from a repeatable, quantitative method of truly ‘integrative taxonomy’. The usual methods for integrating data in phylogenetic and population genetic paradigms are not appropriate for integrative taxonomy, either because of the diverse range of data used or because of the special challenges that arise when working at the species/population boundary. We identify two challenges that, if met, will facilitate the development of a more complete toolkit and a more robust research programme in integrative taxonomy using species tree approaches. We propose the term ‘iterative taxonomy’ for current practice that treats species boundaries as hypotheses to be tested with new evidence. A search for biological or evolutionary explanations for discordant evidence can be used to distinguish between competing species boundary hypotheses. We identify two recent empirical examples that use the process of iterative taxonomy.     

Eucalyptus leachate inhibits reproduction in a freshwater fish

1. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) can induce lethal and sub‐lethal effects in exposed biota via hypoxic blackwater events and the toxicity of leached compounds. Little is known of how DOC exposure affects fish reproduction despite the fact that its release can coincide with spawning‐associated flow pulses. 2. River red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) leaf leachate is a major source of DOC in Australian freshwaters and includes the toxic plant secondary metabolites polyphenols and tannins. High concentrations of leachate are released when leaves on floodplains or dry stream channels are inundated by water. 3. Southern pygmy perch (Nannoperca australis) from naturally high and naturally low Eucalyptus leachate environments in south‐east Australia were exposed to elevated leachate levels to investigate the effects of DOC on reproduction and to explore whether response patterns were consistent with populations becoming locally adapted to historical leachate levels. 4. Fish exposed to leachate were half as likely to reach sexual maturity as control fish. Fish from a naturally high‐exposure population tended to reach sexual maturity earlier than those from a naturally low‐exposure population. Leachate exposure had no effect on either egg size or fecundity. 5. Our results suggest that leachate‐exposed mothers did not reproduce because they were physiologically stressed or perceive the environment to be unsuitable, which raises the potential of plastic or adaptive responses to this stressor. The negative sub‐lethal effects observed have important fitness implications for individuals, the viability of populations and the management of environmental flows and riparian zones.     

Effect of host diet and adult parasitoid diet on egg load dynamics and egg size of braconid parasitoids attacking Anastrepha ludens

The quantity and quality of host nutrients can affect fitness‐related traits in hymenopteran parasitoids, including oogenesis. The present study tested the prediction that a high host quality will influence oogenesis‐related traits positively in synovigenic parasitoids, and that a high‐quality adult parasitoid diet can positively affect the same parameters, potentially compensating for development on low‐quality hosts. Four braconid parasitoid species with contrasting life histories are reared on a low‐quality diet [Anastrepha ludens Loew (Diptera: Tephritidae) larvae reared on mango] or a high‐quality (artificial) diet. Adult parasitoids are provided with a high‐quality (honey ad libitum), moderate‐quality (honey every other day) or low‐quality (guava pulp) diet. Generalist species that encounter high variation in host quality naturally are predicted to be more flexible in dealing with nutrient shortfalls than specialist species. By contrast to the predictions, low‐quality hosts yield parasitoids with higher egg loads in two species: Opius hirtus Fisher and Diachasmimorpha longicaudata Ashmead. However, as predicted, a high‐quality adult diet exerts a positive effect on egg load (Utetes anastrephae Viereck), egg size (Doryctobracon crawfordi Viereck) and egg maturation rate (D. longicaudata, O. hirtus and U. anastrephae). The generalist D. longicaudata varies in egg load and maturation rate depending on host quality and adult diet, respectively. Evidence of the combined effect of both factors on parasitoid fertility is presented for the specialist O. hirtus. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.     

Khaosokia caricoides, a new genus and species of Cyperaceae from Thailand

Khaosokia caricoides , D.A. Simpson, Chayam. & J. Parn., a newly discovered genus and species of Cyperaceae is described and illustrated. The genus is characterized by a narrowly paniculate dioecious inflorescence with 2–4 nodes, each of the nodes having a leaf-like inflorescence bract that exceeds the inflorescence. Spikelets in both sexes are linear-cylindric and each flower has seven perianth bristles. The nutlet was immature in the specimens examined. The photosynthetic pathway is C₃. Khaosokia is endemic to limestone cliffs in peninsular Thailand; its conservation status is assessed as Vulnerable (VU B1a + 2a). It has affinities to tribes Cariceae, Dulichieae and some members of Scirpeae, but the exact nature of these relationships has yet to be determined. A revised key to the genera of Cyperaceae in Thailand is presented.  © 2005 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2005, 149 , 357–364.     

Natural convection from leaves at realistic Grashof numbers

Abstract. The boundary layer resistance of model leaves was measured in still air, at a range of leaf-to-air temperature differences. The results were compared to those calculated from standard formulae for natural convection. The agreement between observed and calculated was only satisfactory when Grashof numbers exceeded about 105. At the lower Grashof numbers, which often prevail in nature, the observed rates of heat transfer considerably exceeded those calculated.