Pathways followed by ricin and Shiga toxin into cells

The plant toxin ricin and the bacterial toxin Shiga toxin belong to a group of protein toxins that inhibit protein synthesis in cells enzymatically after entry into the cytosol. Ricin and Shiga toxin, which both have an enzymatically active moiety that inactivates ribosomes and a moiety that binds to cell surface receptors, enter the cytosol after binding to the cell surface, endocytosis by different mechanisms, and retrograde transport to the Golgi apparatus and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The toxins can be used to investigate the various transport steps involved, both the endocytic mechanisms as well as pathways for retrograde transport to the ER. Recent studies show that not only do several endocytic mechanisms exist in the same cell, but they are not equally sensitive to removal of cholesterol. New data have revealed that there is also more than one pathway leading from endosomes to the Golgi apparatus and retrogradely from the Golgi to the ER. Trafficking of protein toxins along these pathways will be discussed in the present article.     

Ca2+-mediated activation of ERK in hepatocytes by norepinephrine and prostaglandin F2α: role of calmodulin and src kinases

Background

Previous studies have shown that several agents that stimulate heptahelical G-protein coupled receptors activate the extracellular signal regulated kinases ERK1 (p44^mapk) and ERK2 (p42^mapk) in hepatocytes. The molecular pathways that convey their signals to ERK1/2 are only partially clarified. In the present study we have explored the role of Ca²⁺ and Ca²⁺-dependent steps leading to ERK1/2 activation induced by norepinephrine and prostaglandin (PG)F_2α.

Results

Pretreatment of the cells with the Ca²⁺ chelators BAPTA-AM or EGTA, as well as the Ca²⁺ influx inhibitor gadolinium, resulted in a partial decrease of the ERK response. Furthermore, the calmodulin antagonists W-7, trifluoperazine, and J-8 markedly decreased ERK activation. Pretreatment with KN-93, an inhibitor of the multifunctional Ca²⁺/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase, had no effect on ERK activation. The Src kinase inhibitors PP1 and PP2 partially diminished the ERK responses elicited by both norepinephrine and PGF_2α.

Conclusion

The present data indicate that Ca²⁺ is involved in ERK activation induced by hormones acting on G protein-coupled receptors in hepatocytes, and suggest that calmodulin and Src kinases might play a role in these signaling pathways.     

Comparison of enterococcal populations related to urban and hospital wastewater in various climatic and geographic European regions

AIMS: Scarce knowledge about the distribution of enterococci species in wastewaters limits any statement on their reliability as faecal indicators or the implications of antibiotic resistance transmission by these organisms through the water cycle. Enterococci have been involved in nosocomial infections and the spreading of antibiotic resistance through the food chain. The species distribution of enterococci and the presence of resistant strains to vancomycin and erythromycin were analysed in more than 400 raw and treated urban wastewaters, surface waters receiving these treated wastewaters and hospital wastewaters from three European countries. METHODS AND RESULTS: A total of 9296 strains were isolated and biochemically phenotyped. The species identification was based on the comparison of biochemical profiles with those of more than 20000 enterococci isolates from an international study. The prevalence of enterococcal isolates resistant to erythromycin (ERE) and vancomycin (VRE) was also analysed. ERE strains were present in a high proportion in all the studied samples. VRE strains were also isolated in all studied countries despite the time elapsed since the use of antimicrobial glycopeptides in animal production was banned in the European Union. CONCLUSIONS: Enterococcus faecalis and Ent. faecium were the most abundant species in all the studied wastewaters. All the studied wastewaters demonstrated high diversity and similar population structure and composition. ERE and VRE isolates were detected in most of the wastewaters. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Urban and hospital wastewaters are useful targets for the evaluation of the prevalence of ERE and VRE isolates in the environment. It appears that these bacteria could pass through wastewater treatment plants and be transferred to surface waters.     

Cholesterol loading induces a block in the exit of VSVG from the TGN

Recent work from our laboratory demonstrated that increased cellular cholesterol content affects the structure of the Golgi apparatus. We have now investigated the functional consequences of the cholesterol-induced vesiculation of the Golgi apparatus and the role of actin for these changes. The results showed that cholesterol-induced vesiculation and dispersion of the Golgi apparatus is a reversible process and that reversal can be inhibited by cytochalasin D, an actin-disrupting reagent. Furthermore, electron microscopy revealed that jasplakinolide, which stabilizes actin filaments, prevented the dispersion, but not the vesiculation of the Golgi cisternae. Importantly, the different Golgi markers seemed to be separated even after vesiculation. To investigate whether transport through the different steps of the exocytic pathway was affected in cholesterol-treated cells, we visualized ER to plasma membrane transport by using ts045-VSVG-GFP. In COS-1 cells expressing ts045-VSVG-GFP increased cholesterol levels did not affect transport of VSVG into the vesiculated Golgi apparatus. However, increased levels of cholesterol resulted in retention of the nascent G protein in vesicles with the TGN-marker TGN46. Biotinylation of cell surface molecules to quantify arrival of VSVG at the plasma membrane confirmed that cholesterol treatment inhibited export of the VSVG protein. In conclusion, the data show that transport of VSVG into/through a vesiculated Golgi is feasible, but that cholesterol loading inhibits exit of VSVG from the vesicles containing TGN markers. Furthermore, the data illustrate the importance of actin filaments for Golgi structure.     

Determination of first order rate constants by natural logarithm of the slope plot exemplified by analysis of Aspergillus niger in batch culture

Finding rate constants from experimental data is often difficult because of offset and noise. A computer program was developed to average experimental data points, reducing the effect of noise, and to produce a log_e of slope plot – a plot of the natural logarithm of the slope of a curve – eliminating the effect of any offset. If y-values depend exponentially on x-values the log_e of slope plot is rectilinear and the slope is equal to the first order rate constant. Therefore the log_e of slope plot provides easy identification of exponential sections of any experimental or calculated data, corresponding rate constants, and small changes in the rate constant as exemplified by analysis of titrant added to a batch culture of Aspergillus niger. The log_e of slope plot was easily applicable and superior to conventional methods of analysis of exponential decreasing or increasing data.     

Phenolic antioxidants attenuate neuronal cell death following uptake of oxidized low-density lipoprotein

Oxidative stress is implicated in neuronal loss associated with neurodegeneration such as in Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease and age-related cognitive decline. Recent reports indicate that the consumption of flavonoid-rich fruits partly reverses the age-related neuronal and cognitive decline. In this study, cultured striatal neurons were exposed to oxidized lipids in the form of low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) as a model for the induction of oxidative injury, and the abilities of phenolic antioxidants, flavonoids and hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives, to attenuate this neuronal damage were examined. OxLDL was demonstrated to enter neuronal cells and to be capable of eliciting neurotoxicity in a dose- and time-dependent manner, inducing DNA fragmentation and cell lysis. Flavonoids exert protective effects, which appear to be related to specific structural characteristics, particularly relevant being those defining their reduction potentials and partition coefficients. In summary, these data suggest a possible role for flavonoids in reducing neurodegeneration associated with chronic disorders in which oxidative stress is implicated.     

2-(oxalylamino)-benzoic acid is a general, competitive inhibitor of protein-tyrosine phosphatases

Protein-tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) are critically involved in regulation of signal transduction processes. Members of this class of enzymes are considered attractive therapeutic targets in several disease states, e.g. diabetes, cancer, and inflammation. However, most reported PTP inhibitors have been phosphorus-containing compounds, tight binding inhibitors, and/or inhibitors that covalently modify the enzymes. We therefore embarked on identifying a general, reversible, competitive PTP inhibitor that could be used as a common scaffold for lead optimization for specific PTPs. We here report the identification of 2-(oxalylamino)-benzoic acid (OBA) as a classical competitive inhibitor of several PTPs. X-ray crystallography of PTP1B complexed with OBA and related non-phosphate low molecular weight derivatives reveals that the binding mode of these molecules to a large extent mimics that of the natural substrate including hydrogen bonding to the PTP signature motif. In addition, binding of OBA to the active site of PTP1B creates a unique arrangement involving Asp(181), Lys(120), and Tyr(46). PTP inhibitors are essential tools in elucidating the biological function of specific PTPs and they may eventually be developed into selective drug candidates. The unique enzyme kinetic features and the low molecular weight of OBA makes it an ideal starting point for further optimization.     

Phylogeography and population history of Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus L.): a genealogical approach reveals genetic structuring among the eastern Atlantic stocks

Despite the resolving power of DNA markers, pelagic and migratory marine fish species generally show very little geographical population structuring. In mackerel (Scomber scombrus L.) population differentiation has been detected only at a transatlantic scale. By applying two regions in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) (D-loop and cytochrome b (cytb)) in combination with genealogical and frequency-based statistical approaches, our data suggest population differentiation among eastern Atlantic spawning stocks. In contrast, and indicative of homing behaviour, no genetic structuring was observed among shoals of individuals outside the spawning season. Among spawning stocks, mtDNA D-loop sequences detected differentiation within the eastern Atlantic, while the cytb gene detected transatlantic differentiation. The impact of recurrent events (e.g. gene flow restricted by isolation by distance) and historic events (e.g. population range expansions) among spawning stocks was investigated applying a nested cladistic analysis of geographical distribution of cytb haplotype lineages. In the eastern Atlantic, historical population range expansion, presumably in connection with recolonization of northern areas after the last glaciation, is suggested to be the main factor determining mtDNA lineage distribution. This was supported by estimates of mtDNA nucleotide diversity, where the highest diversity was observed for the stock spawning in the Bay of Biscay, for which the size estimate is only 15% of the largest stock (Celtic Sea). In addition to revealing population differentiation, our data demonstrate the importance of sampling strategy and the power of applying statistical methods addressing both ongoing and historical population processes.     

Benthic algal biomass in an unshaded first-order lowland stream: distribution and regulation

The vertical distribution of algal biomass in the bed sediment and the seasonal development of benthic algae on stones and fine-grained sediments were studied in a small unshaded stream. In addition, field experiments were conducted on the role of irradiance and phosphorus in regulating algal biomass. We found that algal biomass was high at a sediment depth of ten centimetres. Comparison of studies on algal biomass where different depths of the sediment are used should therefore be made with caution. Substrata-dependent differences in algal biomass development were substantial. While algal biomass development on stones was controlled by macroinvertebrate grazing, that on the fine-grained sediment followed the dynamics of incident irradiance, but was attenuated by sediment rebedding. Because of the high grazing pressure on algal biomass on stony substrata, no significant response to phosphorus enrichment was attained. In contrast, algal biomass development on fine-grained sediments was phosphorus-limited. Heavy shading of the fine-grained sediments did not significantly affect algal biomass development, thus suggesting that phosphorus limitation prevents algae from fully utilizing the light resource in this stream. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.