Soil micromycete diversity in the hypersaline Dead Sea coastal area,Israel

In the present study, a soil microfungal community was examined over a one-year period (1999–2000) at the western shore of the Dead Sea. A total of 78 species from 40 genera were isolated. The most prominent features of mycobiota of the territory studied were: (i) the prevailing number of melanin-containing micromycetes (46 species, 65.5 % of the total isolate number); (ii) a large share of teleomorphic Ascomyceta (26 species, 18.5 % of isolates); (iii) combination of true soil and plant surface inhabiting species; (iv) spatial and temporal variation of the mycobiota composition; (v) very low fungal density (nearly 500-fold lower than in the Judean Desert soil). These features are formed under the extremely stressful xeric and oligotrophic conditions in which the Dead Sea coastal micromycete community exists. Nine species (Alternaria alternata, A. raphani, Aspergillus niger, Aureobasidium pullulans, Chaetomium globosum, Ch. murorum, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Penicillium aurantiogriseum, and Stachybotrys chartarum) were considered a characteristic micromycete complex for the Dead Sea coastal habitat based on the spatial and temporal occurrence of these species. Many of the micromycetes isolated, including almost all the species listed above, are known to be distributed worldwide occurring in different soil types. This confirms the conclusion of many mycologists working in areas with saline and arid soils that there is no halo-and thermophilous mycobiota characteristic for those soils.     

Elevated CO2 concentrations and stomatal density: observations from 17 plant species growing in a CO2 spring in central Italy

Stomatal density (SD) and stomatal conductance ( g _s) can be affected by an increase of atmospheric CO₂ concentration. This study was conducted on 17 species growing in a naturally enriched CO₂ spring and belonging to three plant communities. Stomatal conductance, stomatal density and stomatal index (SI) of plants from the spring, which were assumed to have been exposed for generations to elevated [CO₂], and of plants of the same species collected in a nearby control site, were compared. Stomatal conductance was significantly lower in most of the species collected in the CO₂ spring and this indicated that CO₂ effects on g _s are not of a transitory nature but persist in the long term and through plant generations. Such a decrease was, however, not associated with changes in the anatomy of leaves: SD was unaffected in the majority of species (the decrease was only significant in three out of the 17 species examined), and also SI values did not vary between the two sites with the exception of two species that showed increased SI in plants grown in the CO₂-enriched area. These results did not support the hypothesis that long-term exposure to elevated [CO₂] may cause adaptive modification in stomatal number and in their distribution.     

Enzymes from Sulfolobus shibatae for the production of trehalose and glucose from starch

Enzymes that convert starch and dextrins to α,α-trehalose and glucose were found in cell homogenates of the hyperthermophilic acidophilic archaeon Sulfolobus shibatae DMS 5389. Three enzymes were purified and characterized. The first, the S. shibatae trehalosyl dextrin-forming enzyme (SsTDFE), transformed starch and dextrins to the corresponding trehalosyl derivatives with an intramolecular transglycosylation process that converted the glucosidic linkage at the reducing end from α-1,4 to α-1,1. The second, the S. shibatae trehalose-forming enzyme (SsTFE), hydrolyzed the α-1,4 linkage adjacent to the α-1,1 bond of trehalosyl dextrins, forming trehalose and lower molecular weight dextrins. These two enzymes had molecular masses of 80 kDa and 65 kDa, respectively, and showed the highest activities at pH 4.5. The apparent optimal temperature for activity was 70°C for SsTDFE and 85°C for SsTFE. The third enzyme identified was an α-glycosidase (SsαGly), which catalyzed the hydrolysis of the α-1,4 glucosidic linkages in starch and dextrins, releasing glucose in a stepwise manner from the nonreducing end of the polysaccharide chain. The enzyme had a molecular mass of 313 kDa and showed the highest activity at pH 5.5 and at 85°C. Received: October 29, 1997 / Accepted: April 29, 1998     

Evidence of Field-Evolved Resistance of Spodoptera frugiperda to Bt Corn Expressing Cry1F in Brazil That Is Still Sensitive to Modified Bt Toxins

Brazil ranked second only to the United States in hectares planted to genetically modified crops in 2013. Recently corn producers in the Cerrado region reported that the control of Spodoptera frugiperda with Bt corn expressing Cry1Fa has decreased, forcing them to use chemicals to reduce the damage caused by this insect pest. A colony of S. frugiperda was established from individuals collected in 2013 from Cry1Fa corn plants (SfBt) in Brazil and shown to have at least more than ten-fold higher resistance levels compared with a susceptible colony (Sflab). Laboratory assays on corn leaves showed that in contrast to SfLab population, the SfBt larvae were able to survive by feeding on Cry1Fa corn leaves. The SfBt population was maintained without selection for eight generations and shown to maintain high levels of resistance to Cry1Fa toxin. SfBt showed higher cross-resistance to Cry1Aa than to Cry1Ab or Cry1Ac toxins. As previously reported, Cry1A toxins competed the binding of Cry1Fa to brush border membrane vesicles (BBMV) from SfLab insects, explaining cross-resistance to Cry1A toxins. In contrast Cry2A toxins did not compete Cry1Fa binding to SfLab-BBMV and no cross-resistance to Cry2A was observed, although Cry2A toxins show low toxicity to S. frugiperda. Bioassays with Cry1AbMod and Cry1AcMod show that they are highly active against both the SfLab and the SfBt populations. The bioassay data reported here show that insects collected from Cry1Fa corn in the Cerrado region were resistant to Cry1Fa suggesting that resistance contributed to field failures of Cry1Fa corn to control S. frugiperda.     

A Quantitative Model of the GIRK1/2 Channel Reveals That Its Basal and Evoked Activities Are Controlled by Unequal Stoichiometry of Gα and Gβγ

G protein-gated K⁺ channels (GIRK; Kir3), activated by Gβγ subunits derived from G_i/o proteins, regulate heartbeat and neuronal excitability and plasticity. Both neurotransmitter-evoked (I_evoked) and neurotransmitter-independent basal (I_basal) GIRK activities are physiologically important, but mechanisms of I_basal and its relation to I_evoked are unclear. We have previously shown for heterologously expressed neuronal GIRK1/2, and now show for native GIRK in hippocampal neurons, that I_basal and I_evoked are interrelated: the extent of activation by neurotransmitter (activation index, R_a) is inversely related to I_basal. To unveil the underlying mechanisms, we have developed a quantitative model of GIRK1/2 function. We characterized single-channel and macroscopic GIRK1/2 currents, and surface densities of GIRK1/2 and Gβγ expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Based on experimental results, we constructed a mathematical model of GIRK1/2 activity under steady-state conditions before and after activation by neurotransmitter. Our model accurately recapitulates I_basal and I_evoked in Xenopus oocytes, HEK293 cells and hippocampal neurons; correctly predicts the dose-dependent activation of GIRK1/2 by coexpressed Gβγ and fully accounts for the inverse I_basal-R_a correlation. Modeling indicates that, under all conditions and at different channel expression levels, between 3 and 4 Gβγ dimers are available for each GIRK1/2 channel. In contrast, available Gα_i/o decreases from ~2 to less than one Gα per channel as GIRK1/2''s density increases. The persistent Gβγ/channel (but not Gα/channel) ratio support a strong association of GIRK1/2 with Gβγ, consistent with recruitment to the cell surface of Gβγ, but not Gα, by GIRK1/2. Our analysis suggests a maximal stoichiometry of 4 Gβγ but only 2 Gα_i/o per one GIRK1/2 channel. The unique, unequal association of GIRK1/2 with G protein subunits, and the cooperative nature of GIRK gating by Gβγ, underlie the complex pattern of basal and agonist-evoked activities and allow GIRK1/2 to act as a sensitive bidirectional detector of both Gβγ and Gα.     

Effects of prolonged drought on the anatomy of sun and shade needles in young Norway spruce trees

Predicted increases in the frequency and duration of drought are expected to negatively affect tree vitality, but we know little about how water shortage will influence needle anatomy and thereby the trees’ photosynthetic and hydraulic capacity. In this study, we evaluated anatomical changes in sun and shade needles of 20‐year‐old Norway spruce trees exposed to artificial drought stress. Canopy position was found to be important for needle structure, as sun needles had significantly higher values than shade needles for all anatomical traits (i.e., cross‐sectional needle area, number of tracheids in needle, needle hydraulic conductivity, and tracheid lumen area), except proportion of xylem area per cross‐sectional needle area. In sun needles, drought reduced all trait values by 10–40%, whereas in shade needles, only tracheid maximum diameter was reduced by drought. Due to the relatively weaker response of shade needles than sun needles in drought‐stressed trees, the difference between the two needle types was reduced by 25% in the drought‐stressed trees compared to the control trees. The observed changes in needle anatomy provide new understanding of how Norway spruce adapts to drought stress and may improve predictions of how forests will respond to global climate change.     

Smoking in Relation to Coronary Atherosclerotic Plaque Burden,Volume and Composition on Intravascular Ultrasound

Background

This study aimed to evaluate the relationship between cigarette smoking and coronary atherosclerotic burden, volume and composition as determined in-vivo by grayscale and virtual histology (VH) intravascular ultrasound (IVUS).

Methods and Results

Between 2008 and 2011, (VH-)IVUS of a non-culprit coronary artery was performed in 581 patients undergoing coronary angiography. To account for differences in baseline characteristics, current smokers were matched to never smokers by age, gender and indication for catheterization, resulting in 280 patients available for further analysis. Coronary atherosclerotic plaque volume, burden, composition (fibrous, fibro-fatty, dense calcium and necrotic core) and high-risk lesions (VH-IVUS derived thin-cap fibroatheroma (TCFA), plaque burden ≥70%, minimal luminal area ≤4.0 mm²) were assessed. Cigarette smoking showed a tendency towards higher coronary plaque burden (mean±SD, 38.6±12.5% in current versus 36.4±11.0% in never smokers, p = 0.080; and odds ratio (OR) of current smoking for plaque burden above versus below the median 1.69 (1.04–2.75), p = 0.033). This effect was driven by an association in patients presenting with an acute coronary syndrome (ACS) (current smokers, plaque burden 38.3±12.8% versus never smokers, plaque burden 35.0±11.2%, p = 0.049; OR 1.88 (1.02–3.44), p = 0.042). Fibrous tissue tended to be lower in current smokers (mean±SD, 57.7±10.5% versus 60.4±12.6%, p = 0.050) and fibro-fatty tissue was higher in current smokers (median[IQR], 9.6[6.0–13.7]% versus 8.6[5.8–12.2]%, p = 0.039). However, differences in percentage necrotic core and dense calcium could not be demonstrated. Also, no differences were found with regard to high-risk lesions.

Conclusions

An association between smoking and degree of coronary atherosclerosis was present in patients undergoing coronary angiography who presented with ACS. Although smoking was associated with higher fibro-fatty percentage, no associations could be demonstrated with percentage necrotic core, nor with VH-IVUS derived TCFA lesions. Since the magnitude of the differences in both degree and composition of atherosclerosis was modest, clinical relevance of the findings may be questioned.