Inequality as a Powerful Predictor of Infant and Maternal Mortality around the World

Background

Maternal and infant mortality are highly devastating, yet, in many cases, preventable events for a community. The human development of a country is a strong predictor of maternal and infant mortality, reflecting the importance of socioeconomic factors in determinants of health. Previous research has shown that the Human Development Index (HDI) predicts infant mortality rate (IMR) and the maternal mortality ratio (MMR). Inequality has also been shown to be associated with worse health in certain populations. The main purpose of the present study was to determine the correlation and predictive power of the Inequality Adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI) as a measure of inequality with the Infant Mortality Rate (IMR), Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR), Early Neonatal Mortality Rate (ENMR), Late Neonatal Mortality Rate (LNMR), and the Post Neonatal Mortality Rate (PNMR).

Methods and Findings

Data for the present study were downloaded from two sources: infant and maternal mortality data were downloaded from the Global Burden of Disease 2013 Cause of Death Database and the Human Development Index (HDI) and Inequality-Adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI) data were downloaded from the United Nations Development Program (UNDP). Pearson correlation coefficients were estimated, following logarithmic transformations to the data, to examine the relationship between HDI and IHDI with MMR, IMR, ENMR, LNMR, and PNMR. Steiger’s Z test for the equality of two dependent correlations was utilized in order to determine whether the HDI or IHDI was more strongly associated with the outcome variables. Lastly, we constructed OLS regression models in order to determine the predictive power of the HDI and IHDI in terms of the MMR, IMR, ENMR, LNMR, and PNMR.Maternal and infant mortality were both strongly and negatively correlated with both HDI and IHDI; however, Steiger’s Z test for the equality of two dependent correlations revealed that IHDI was more strongly correlated than HDI with MMR (Z = 4.897, p < 0.001), IMR (Z = 2.524, p = 0.012), ENMR (Z = 2.936, p = 0.003), LNMR (Z = 2.272, p = 0.023), and PNMR (Z = 2.277, p = 0.023). Furthermore, side-by-side OLS regression models revealed that, when IHDI was used as the predictor variable instead of HDI, the R ² value was 0.053 higher for MMR, 0.025 higher for IMR, 0.038 higher for ENMR, 0.029 higher for LNMR, and 0.026 higher for PNMR.

Conclusions

Even when both the HDI and the IHDI correlate with the infant and maternal mortality rates, the IHDI is a better predictor for these two health indicators. Therefore, these results add more evidence that inequality is playing an important role in determining the health status of various populations in the world and more efforts should be put into programs to fight inequality.     

Secretory structures at syconia and flowers of Ficus enormis (Moraceae): A specialization at ostiolar bracts and the first report of inflorescence colleters

The fig (Ficus L.) infructescence, called syconium, is a receptacle with an apical opening, the ostiole, closed by bracts. The ostiolar bracts produce an exudate, which is rather conspicuous in some species. It has not been histochemically analyzed yet, and the structures responsible for its production are still unknown. Some wild growing species of Ficus from Brazil produce high amounts of this ostiolar exudate. Ficus enormis (Mart. ex Miq.) Miq. grows as trees or shrubs in the Atlantic rainforest. Our goal was to identify the secretory structures present in the inflorescence and, to characterize histochemically the ostiolar tissues and exudates. Syconia samples of F. enormis were processed and stained according to the usual techniques in plant anatomy. The morphological analysis revealed different types of bracts, one type specialized in secretion, another showing transitional characteristics between secretory and non-secreting bracts, and a third one being non-secreting. They are designated as secretory ostiolar bracts, transitional bracts and wall bracts. The floral bracteoles, digital-shaped colleters present in the ostiole, at the syconium axis and at the flower receptacle, were also analyzed. All have similar structure, like finger-shaped secretory trichomes. The colleters present among ostiolar bracts may contribute to production and composition of the ostiole exudate.     

Beta2 Adrenergic Receptor (ADRβ2) Haplotype Pair (2/4) Is Associated with Severe Asthma

Background

β2 adrenergic receptor (ADRβ2) polymorphisms including ADRβ2+46G>A have been reported to cause adverse outcomes in mild asthmatics. The extent to which ADRβ2 polymorphisms and in particular their haplotypes contribute to severe asthma is unknown.

Objective

To determine the association of ADRβ2 polymorphisms and haplotypes with asthma severity.

Methods

Caucasians (n = 2979) were genotyped for 11 ADRβ2 polymorphisms. The cohort (mean age 39.6, 60% female) included 2296 non-asthmatics, 386 mild asthmatics, 172 moderate asthmatics and 125 severe asthmatics. Haplotype frequency and haplotype pair for each subject was determined using the PHASE algorithm.

Results

The three asthmatic cohorts were comparable in age and gender but were distinguishable from each other in terms of symptoms, spirometry, medication use and health care utilisation (p <0.001). None of the polymorphisms showed a genotypic or allelic association with asthma diagnosis or severity. Nine haplotypes were identified and no association was found with asthma diagnosis or severity per se. Haplotype pair 2/4 was associated with asthma severity (Trend Test, OR 1.42, p = 0.0008) but not with asthma per se. Prevalence of haplotype pair 2/2 appeared to decrease with asthma severity (Trend Test, OR 0.78, p = 0.067). Two new haplotypes were identified, occurring exclusively in asthmatics at a frequency of ≥ 1%. In addition, a positive association between carriage of ADRβ2 +523*C and increased risk of atopy was discovered.

Conclusions

ADRβ2 haplotype pair 2/4 is associated with severe asthma and is consistent with findings of poor bronchodilator response in mild asthmatics who are also haplotype 2/4.     

Snipe taxonomy based on vocal and non-vocal sound displays: the South American Snipe is two species

We analysed breeding sounds of the two subspecies of South American Snipe Gallinago paraguaiae paraguaiae and Gallinago paraguaiae magellanica to determine whether they might be different species: loud vocalizations given on the ground, and the tail-generated Winnow given in aerial display. Sounds of the two taxa differ qualitatively and quantitatively. Both taxa utter two types of ground call. In G. p. paraguaiae, the calls are bouts of identical sound elements repeated rhythmically and slowly (about five elements per second (Hz)) or rapidly (about 11 Hz). One call of G. p. magellanica is qualitatively similar to those of G. p. paraguaiae but sound elements are repeated more slowly (about 3 Hz). However, its other call type differs strikingly: it is a bout of rhythmically repeated sound couplets, each containing two kinds of sound element. The Winnow of G. p. paraguaiae is a series of sound elements that gradually increase in duration and energy; by contrast, that of G. p. magellanica has two or more kinds of sound element that roughly alternate and are repeated as sets, imparting a stuttering quality. Sounds of the related Puna Snipe (Gallinago andina) resemble but differ quantitatively from those of G. p. paraguaiae. Differences in breeding sounds of G. p. paraguaiae and G. p. magellanica are strong and hold throughout their geographical range. Therefore we suggest that the two taxa be considered different species: G. paraguaiae east of the Andes in much of South America except Patagonia, and G. magellanica in central and southern Chile, Argentina east of the Andes across Patagonia, and Falklands/Malvinas.     

Arsenic,Cadmium and Lead Erythrocyte Concentrations in Men with a High,Moderate and Low Level of Physical Training

Biological Trace Element Research - The aim of the present study was to determine changes occurring in the erythrocyte concentrations of arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) in highly trained...     

Haplotypes of the bovine IgG2 heavy gamma chain in tick-resistant and tick-susceptible breeds of cattle

Bovines present contrasting, heritable phenotypes of infestations with the cattle tick, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus. Tick salivary glands produce IgG-binding proteins (IGBPs) as a mechanism for escaping from host antibodies that these ectoparasites ingest during blood meals. Allotypes that occur in the constant region of IgG may differ in their capacity to bind with tick IGBPs; this may be reflected by the distribution of distinct allotypes according to phenotypes of tick infestations. In order to test this hypothesis, we investigated the frequency of haplotypes of bovine IgG2 among tick-resistant and tick-susceptible breeds of bovines. Sequencing of the gene coding for the heavy chain of IgG2 from 114 tick-resistant (Bos taurus indicus, Nelore breed) and tick-susceptible (B. t. taurus, Holstein breed) bovines revealed SNPs that generated 13 different haplotypes, of which 11 were novel and 5 were exclusive of Holstein and 3 of Nelore breeds. Alignment and modeling of coded haplotypes for hinge regions of the bovine IgG2 showed that they differ in the distribution of polar and hydrophobic amino acids and in shape according to the distribution of these amino acids. We also found that there was an association between genotypes of the constant region of the IgG2 heavy chain with phenotypes of tick infestations. These findings open the possibility of investigating if certain IgG allotypes hinder the function of tick IGBPs. If so, they may be markers for breeding for resistance against tick infestations.     

Viability of phenanthrene biodegradation by an isolated bacterial consortium: optimization and scale-up

In the present work, biodegradation of phenanthrene by a bacterial consortium (LB2), isolated from lab-polluted soils has been investigated. The 16S rRNA gene-based molecular analysis revealed that the bacterial consortium LB2 consisted of two strains showing a very high homology with Staphylococcus warneri and Bacillus pumilus. The optimization of phenanthrene degradation by the consortium LB2, using a central composite face-centered design was carried out taking into account three important parameters such as temperature, pH, and phenanthrene concentration. Near complete phenanthrene degradation was reached by consortium LB2 at the optimal conditions (pH of 7.5 and 37.5 °C) in less than 48 h. Moreover, the efficiency of phenanthrene biodegradation was assessed by using logistic and Luedeking and Piret-type models. Finally, the process was implemented at bench-scale bioreactor and the main degradation routes were identified based on GC-MS data.     

Morphologic evaluation and expression of matrix metalloproteinases-2 and 9 and nitric oxide during experimental periodontal disease in rat

The immunopathologic and inflammatory mechanisms involved in periodontal disease (PD) include the participation of host resident, inflammatory cells and chemical mediators. Metalloproteinases (MMPs) and nitric oxide (NO) play essential role in extracellular matrix turnover of periodontal tissue destruction. In this study, by means of RT-PCR through semi-quantitative densitometric scanning methods, the expression of MMPs -2 and -9 and inducible NO synthase (iNOS) was temporally and spatially investigated during the destructive mechanisms of experimentally induced PD in rats. Samples from different periods were microscopically analyzed and compared with the contralateral side (control). Our results showed significant expression of MMP-9 and iNOS in tissues affected by PD, as compared with controls, three days after PD induction, simultaneously with the beginning of alveolar bone loss. At 7 days post induction, only the MMP-9 mRNA presented a significantly higher expression, as compared with the respective controls. Thus, in the rat ligature-induced PD, MMP-9 and iNOS might importantly participate in the early stages of the disease, including inflammatory cell migration, tissue destruction and alveolar bone resorption. Also, we may suggest that the exuberant presence of PMNs may be related to the important expression of iNOS and MMP-9 found at 3 days post induction.     

How Much Is Too Little to Detect Impacts? A Case Study of a Nuclear Power Plant

Several approaches have been proposed to assess impacts on natural assemblages. Ideally, the potentially impacted site and multiple reference sites are sampled through time, before and after the impact. Often, however, the lack of information regarding the potential overall impact, the lack of knowledge about the environment in many regions worldwide, budgets constraints and the increasing dimensions of human activities compromise the reliability of the impact assessment. We evaluated the impact, if any, and its extent of a nuclear power plant effluent on sessile epibiota assemblages using a suitable and feasible sampling design with no ‘before’ data and budget and logistic constraints. Assemblages were sampled at multiple times and at increasing distances from the point of the discharge of the effluent. There was a clear and localized effect of the power plant effluent (up to 100 m from the point of the discharge). However, depending on the time of the year, the impact reaches up to 600 m. We found a significantly lower richness of taxa in the Effluent site when compared to other sites. Furthermore, at all times, the variability of assemblages near the discharge was also smaller than in other sites. Although the sampling design used here (in particular the number of replicates) did not allow an unambiguously evaluation of the full extent of the impact in relation to its intensity and temporal variability, the multiple temporal and spatial scales used allowed the detection of some differences in the intensity of the impact, depending on the time of sampling. Our findings greatly contribute to increase the knowledge on the effects of multiple stressors caused by the effluent of a power plant and also have important implications for management strategies and conservation ecology, in general.