Terrestrial Activity in Pitheciins (Cacajao,Chiropotes, and Pithecia)

Neotropical monkeys of the genera Cacajao, Chiropotes, and Pithecia (Pitheciidae) are considered to be highly arboreal, spending most of their time feeding and traveling in the upper canopy. Until now, the use of terrestrial substrates has not been analyzed in detail in this group. Here, we review the frequency of terrestrial use among pitheciin taxa to determine the ecological and social conditions that might lead to such behavior. We collated published and unpublished data from 14 taxa in the three genera. Data were gleaned from 53 published studies (including five on multiple pitheciin genera) and personal communications of unpublished data distributed across 31 localities. Terrestrial activity was reported in 61% of Pithecia field studies (11 of 18), in 34% of Chiropotes studies (10 of 29), and 36% of Cacajao studies (4 of 11). Within Pithecia, terrestrial behavior was more frequently reported in smaller species (e.g. P. pithecia) that are vertical clingers and leapers and make extensive use of the understory than in in the larger bodied canopy dwellers of the western Amazon (e.g. P. irrorata). Terrestrial behavior in Pithecia also occurred more frequently and lasted longer than in Cacajao or Chiropotes. An apparent association was found between flooded habitats and terrestrial activity and there is evidence of the development of a “local pattern” of terrestrial use in some populations. Seasonal fruit availability also may stimulate terrestrial behavior. Individuals also descended to the ground when visiting mineral licks, escaping predators, and responding to accidents such as a dropped infant. Overall, the results of this review emphasize that terrestrial use is rare among the pitheciins in general and is usually associated with the exploitation of specific resources or habitat types. Am. J. Primatol. 74:1106‐1127, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The Effect of Cultural Operations on the Composition of the Xylem Sap of Tea Plants Recovering from Pruning

Complete removal of foliage-bearing branches from tea plantsrecovering from pruning at low altitudes has been observed toresult in a scorching of the newly-developing buds and shoots.Studies on the xylem sap composition have revealed that thereis a very sharp increase in the amino-N content of the sap.The relationship between the sap composition and the physiologyof the plant is discussed.     

Isolation and characterization of microsatellite loci in Amazonian red‐handed howlers Alouatta belzebul (Primates,Plathyrrini)

Ten highly polymorphic microsatellite loci are described for Amazonian red‐handed howlers (Alouatta belzebul), an endemic Brazilian primate species subject to intense hunting pressure. The number of alleles observed in 30 individuals ranged from nine to 20, and observed heterozygosity varied from 0.35 to 0.93. No linkage associations were evident from pairwise comparisons of loci. These microsatellites offer a powerful tool for fine‐scale studies of genetic structure in both captive colonies and wild populations of red‐handed howlers.     

Multivariate Interpretation of the Distribution of Nitrogen-fixing Blue--green Algae in Rice Soils in Central Sri Lanka

The ecology of nitrogen fixing blue-green algae in rice fieldsof Central Sri Lanka was studied using multi-variate techniquesof analyses. In this study 73 strains of heterocystous blue—greenalgae, belonging to 21 genera were isolated and the distributionof the 46 most abundant strains was examined in relation toecological parameters. Besides pedological factors such as pH, water holding capacityand available phosphorus; environmental factors including rainfalland altitude have shown up as parameters influencing the distributionof the algal species. On the other hand, soil organic carbon,total nitrogen, potassium and calcium, do not appear to playan important role in determining the composition of the algalflora. While certain algal species were ubiquitous in their distributionsome were restricted, and a few even showed a tolerance to standswith low soil pH and low levels of phosphorus. The agronomicpotential of such species is of value especially in relationto rice-growing soils of this District, where low pH and lowlevels of phosphorus are major limiting factors for the profusegrowth of blue—green algae. Blue-green algae, nitrogen fixation, Sri Lanka, rice-growing soils, multivariate analysis     

Selection for enemy‐free space: eggs placed away from the host plant increase survival of a neotropical ithomiine butterfly

1. The selection of an oviposition site by a phytophagous insect can depend on many factors, including the risk of predation. Many species avoid predators by laying eggs where enemies searching host plants are unlikely to find them. 2. Females of the Peruvian butterfly, Oleria onega Hewitson (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Danainae: Ithomiini) lay most of their eggs (76 ± 9%) off the host plant, Solanum mite Ruiz & Pav. These off‐host eggs may be laid up to 0.5 m from the nearest host‐plant individual, on twigs or leaf litter, as well as on living plants of species unsuitable for larval food. 3. Disappearance of eggs on and off the host plant was recorded by transferring eggs laid in captivity to known locations in the wild and recording rates of disappearance before the larvae emerged. After 2 days, eggs on the host were significantly more likely to have disappeared compared to eggs laid elsewhere. 4. We conclude that a high risk of predation is a likely trigger that caused O. onega to evolve a behaviour of laying eggs off its host plant.