Quirks of dye nomenclature. 1. Evans blue

The history, origin, identity, chemistry and use of Evans blue dye are described along with the first application to staining by Herbert McLean Evans in 1914. In the 1930s, the dye was marketed under the name, Evans blue dye, which was profoundly more acceptable than the ponderous chemical name.     

Identification and functional characterization of nonmammalian Toll-like receptor 20

Like other vertebrate Toll-like receptors (TLRs), the TLRs of teleost fish can be subdivided into six major families, each of which recognize a general class of molecular patterns. However, there also are a number of Tlrs with unknown function, the presence of which seems unique to the bony fish, among which is Tlr20. We identified full-length complementary DNA (cDNA) sequences for tlr20 of zebrafish and common carp, two closely related fish species. Zebrafish have six copies of tlr20, whereas carp express only a single copy. Both zebrafish Tlr20 (at least Tlr20a–d) and carp Tlr20 have 26 leucine-rich repeats (LRRs). Three-dimensional modeling indicates a best fit to the crystal structure of TLR8. Phylogenetic analyses place Tlr20 in the TLR11 family closest to Tlr11 and Tlr12, which sense ligands from protozoan parasites in the mouse. Conservation of genes on zebrafish chromosome 9, which carries tlr20, with genes on mouse chromosome 14, which carries tlr11, indicates Tlr11 could be a possible ortholog of Tlr20. Confocal microscopy suggests a subcellular localization of Tlr20 at the endoplasmatic reticulum. Although in vitro reporter assays could not identify a ligand unique to Tlr20, in vivo infection experiments indicate a role for Tlr20 in the immune response of carp to protozoan parasites (Trypanoplasma borreli). Carp tlr20 is mainly expressed in peripheral blood leukocytes (PBL) with B lymphocytes, in particular, expressing relatively high levels of Tlr20. In vitro stimulation of PBL with T. borreli induces an upregulation of tlr20, supportive of a role for Tlr20 in the immune response to protozoan parasites.     

Insights into the Photoprotective Switch of the Major Light-harvesting Complex II (LHCII): A PRESERVED CORE OF ARGININE-GLUTAMATE INTERLOCKED HELICES COMPLEMENTED BY ADJUSTABLE LOOPS*

Light-harvesting antennae of the LHC family form transmembrane three-helix bundles of which two helices are interlocked by conserved arginine-glutamate (Arg-Glu) ion pairs that form ligation sites for chlorophylls. The antenna proteins of photosystem II have an intriguing dual function. In excess light, they can switch their conformation from a light-harvesting into a photoprotective state, in which the excess and harmful excitation energies are safely dissipated as heat. Here we applied magic angle spinning NMR and selective Arg isotope enrichment as a noninvasive method to analyze the Arg structures of the major light-harvesting complex II (LHCII). The conformations of the Arg residues that interlock helix A and B appear to be preserved in the light-harvesting and photoprotective state. Several Arg residues have very downfield-shifted proton NMR responses, indicating that they stabilize the complex by strong hydrogen bonds. For the Arg C_α chemical shifts, differences are observed between LHCII in the active, light-harvesting and in the photoprotective, quenched state. These differences are attributed to a conformational change of the Arg residue in the stromal loop region. We conclude that the interlocked helices of LHCII form a rigid core. Consequently, the LHCII conformational switch does not involve changes in A/B helix tilting but likely involves rearrangements of the loops and helical segments close to the stromal and lumenal ends.     

Tobacco genes encoding acidic and basic isoforms of pathogenesis-related proteins display different expression patterns

The induction by cytokinin stress and ethylene of nine different tobacco mosaic virus-inducible mRNA classes (termed A-I) encoding pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins was studied. The induced mRNA levels were compared to basal levels in healthy tobacco plants grown in tissue culture and in a greenhouse. Cytokinin stress and ethylene were found to induce different subsets of the mRNAs, indicating that ethylene is not the primary inducing signal in cytokinin-stressed shoots. mRNAs F, H and G encoding the basic hydrolytic enzymes chitinase, -1,3-glucanase and a basic equivalent of PR-1, respectively, were found to be expressed at high levels in roots of healthy plants. mRNAs D, I and B encoding the acidic equivalents of the proteins proved to be present at low levels in healthy plants. These results indicate that genes encoding basic and acidic isoforms of pathogenesis-related proteins are differentially regulated.     

Analysis of phytochrome-deficient yellow-green-2 and aurea mutants of tomato

Two alleles of the yellow-green-2 ( yg-2) and eight different alleles of the aurea ( au ) locus of tomato ( Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) were compared. All are characterized by a paler green colour compared with wild-type (WT), an elongated hypocotyl in red light, and low or below detection limits of spectrophotometrically active phytochrome. Hypocotyl length was variable in white light, ranging from that of WT to more elongated. Immunochemical analysis revealed that etiolated seedlings of the yg-2 mutant have approximately 25% of the WT level of phytochrome A protein (PHYA), whereas that of phytochrome B protein (PHYB) is normal. In this it resembles the au mutant. The au,yg-2 double mutant has a more extreme chlorophyll deficiency than either parent. Since the yg-2 and au mutants have a less severe phenotype at the adult stage, that is, are leaky, the additive effect can be explained by assuming that the mutants control two steps in the chromophore biosynthesis pathway. Combination, by crossing, of the yg-2 and au mutants with a transgenic tomato line that overexpresses oat phytochrome A3 (PhyA-3) essentially failed to restore the WT phenotype under white fluorescent light conditions, although under greenhouse conditions some evidence for increased sensitivity to light was observed. Immunochemically, oat PHYA-3 protein is detectable in both the yg-2,PhyA-3 and au,PhyA-3 'double' mutants. Spectrophotometrical analysis, however, revealed that holophytochrome was undetectable in the yg-2,PhyA-3 and au,PhyA-3 'double' mutants. These results are compatible with both mutants being disturbed in phytochrome chromophore biosynthesis.     

ALS/FTD‐associated FUS activates GSK‐3β to disrupt the VAPB–PTPIP51 interaction and ER–mitochondria associations

Defective FUS metabolism is strongly associated with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and frontotemporal dementia (ALS/FTD), but the mechanisms linking FUS to disease are not properly understood. However, many of the functions disrupted in ALS/FTD are regulated by signalling between the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria. This signalling is facilitated by close physical associations between the two organelles that are mediated by binding of the integral ER protein VAPB to the outer mitochondrial membrane protein PTPIP51, which act as molecular scaffolds to tether the two organelles. Here, we show that FUS disrupts the VAPB–PTPIP51 interaction and ER–mitochondria associations. These disruptions are accompanied by perturbation of Ca²⁺ uptake by mitochondria following its release from ER stores, which is a physiological read‐out of ER–mitochondria contacts. We also demonstrate that mitochondrial ATP production is impaired in FUS‐expressing cells; mitochondrial ATP production is linked to Ca²⁺ levels. Finally, we demonstrate that the FUS‐induced reductions to ER–mitochondria associations and are linked to activation of glycogen synthase kinase‐3β (GSK‐3β), a kinase already strongly associated with ALS/FTD.     

Multicentre Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Food Challenge Study in Children Sensitised to Cashew Nut

Background

Few studies with a limited number of patients have provided indications that cashew-allergic patients may experience severe allergic reactions to minimal amounts of cashew nut. The objectives of this multicentre study were to assess the clinical relevance of cashew nut sensitisation, to study the clinical reaction patterns in double-blind placebo-controlled food challenge tests and to establish the amount of cashew nuts that can elicit an allergic reaction.

Methods and Findings

A total of 179 children were included (median age 9.0 years; range 2–17 years) with cashew nut sensitisation and a clinical history of reactions to cashew nuts or unknown exposure. Sensitised children who could tolerate cashew nuts were excluded. The study included three clinical visits and a telephone consultation. During the first visit, the medical history was evaluated, physical examinations were conducted, blood samples were drawn and skin prick tests were performed. The children underwent a double-blind placebo-controlled food challenge test with cashew nut during the second and third visits. The study showed that 137 (76.5%) of the sensitised children suspected of allergy to cashew nut had a positive double-blind placebo-controlled food challenge test, with 46% (63) manifesting subjective symptoms to the lowest dose of 1 mg cashew nut protein and 11% (15) developing objective symptoms to the lowest dose. Children most frequently had gastro-intestinal symptoms, followed by oral allergy and skin symptoms. A total of 36% (49/137) of the children experienced an anaphylactic reaction and 6% (8/137) of the children were treated with epinephrine.

Conclusion

This prospective study demonstrated a strikingly high percentage of clinical reactions to cashew nut in this third line population. Severe allergic reactions, including anaphylaxis requiring epinephrine, were observed. These reactions were to minimal amounts of cashew nut, demonstrated the high potency of this allergens.

Trial Registration

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed NTR3572     

Lidocaine block of cardiac sodium channels

Lidocaine block of cardiac sodium channels was studied in voltage-clamped rabbit purkinje fibers at drug concentrations ranging from 1 mM down to effective antiarrhythmic doses (5-20 μM). Dose-response curves indicated that lidocaine blocks the channel by binding one-to-one, with a voltage-dependent K(d). The half-blocking concentration varied from more than 300 μM, at a negative holding potential where inactivation was completely removed, to approximately 10 μM, at a depolarized holding potential where inactivation was nearly complete. Lidocaine block showed prominent use dependence with trains of depolarizing pulses from a negative holding potential. During the interval between pulses, repriming of I (Na) displayed two exponential components, a normally recovering component (τless than 0.2 s), and a lidocaine-induced, slowly recovering fraction (τ approximately 1-2 s at pH 7.0). Raising the lidocaine concentration magnified the slowly recovering fraction without changing its time course; after a long depolarization, this fraction was one-half at approximately 10 μM lidocaine, just as expected if it corresponded to drug-bound, inactivated channels. At less than or equal to 20 μM lidocaine, the slowly recovering fraction grew exponentially to a steady level as the preceding depolarization was prolonged; the time course was the same for strong or weak depolarizations, that is, with or without significant activation of I(Na). This argues that use dependence at therapeutic levels reflects block of inactivated channels, rather than block of open channels. Overall, these results provide direct evidence for the “modulated-receptor hypothesis” of Hille (1977) and Hondeghem and Katzung (1977). Unlike tetrodotoxin, lidocaine shows similar interactions with Na channels of heart, nerve, and skeletal muscle.