Human and animal research guidelines: aligning ethical constructs with new scientific developments

Both human research and animal research operate within established standards and procedures. Although the human research environment has been criticized for its sometimes inefficient and imperfect process, reported abuses of human subjects in research served as the impetus for the establishment of the Nuremberg Code, Declaration of Helsinki, and the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research and the resulting Belmont Report. No similar, comprehensive and principled effort has addressed the use of animals in research. Although published policies regarding animal research provide relevant regulatory guidance, these policies have not emerged from the process of specifying consistent and reasoned ethical principles. The lack of a fundamental effort to explore the ethical issues and principles regarding the use of animals in research has led to unclear and disparate policies. Recent studies have increased our understanding of animal cognition and emotion, suggesting that animals' potential for experiencing a wide variety of harms, such as pain and fear, is greater than has been previously appreciated. Furthermore, relationships between methods of captivity and certain laboratory procedures and the resulting adverse physical, social and psychological effects have been established. In light of this information, current protections may need to be reconsidered and modified. This paper explores the historical convergence and divergence in the creation of human and animal research guidelines, as well as opportunities to align ethical frameworks with new scientific discoveries.     

"Not clinically indicated": patients' interests or resource allocation?

The decision that a particular intervention is not clinically indicated may conceal two quite different ethical assumptions. The first assumption is that the intervention is not of overall benefit to this patient. The second is that limited resources should not be used for this patient. These issues are discussed with reference to cardiac surgery in elderly patients with reference to the main theories of allocation: QALYs, needs theories, the sanctity of life theory, the lottery theory, and market forces.     

Ultrastructure of the Feeding Apparatus of Rhabdodemania minima Chitwood, 1936 (Enoplida: Rhabdodemaniidae)

The feeding apparatus of the marine nematode Rhabdodemania minima Chitwood, 1936 has been examined with light and transmission electron microscopy. The buccal capsule consists of a posterior region with smooth walls bearing three sets of three minute denticles at its posterior end and three large onchia in its mid region; a middle region with grooved walls; and an anterior region with costae and six odontia. The anterior and middle portions of the buccal capsule are enveloped by the cephalic cuticle, whereas the posterior region, which is set off from the middle region by a buccal seam, is partially enveloped by the anterior end of the esophagus. Two subventral esophageal glands open into the lumen of the esophagus. Secretions of each of three paraesophageal glands are conveyed through a duct in each of the three corresponding corners of the buccal wall to an opening between labia. A pair of wing-like thickenings, termed pterons, embraces the duct of each paraesophageal gland in the posterior and middle regions of the buccal capsule. A model of how the buccal capsule operates is proposed and tested. Morphological and functional aspects of the buccal apparatus and cephalic cuticle are compared with those of other taxa of the Enoplida, and their phylogenetic implications are discussed.     

The gene for an exported antigen of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli.

An exported protein of the erythrocytic stages of the malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, has epitope(s) in common with the surface of the sporozoite stage (1). Two cDNA clones encoding this protein, Ag5.1, have now been isolated and expressed in Escherichia coli. The coding sequence contains a region with strong homology to that of the circumsporozoite protein of P. falciparum. Other features of the sequence can be explained in terms of the observed behaviour of the protein in the parasite life cycle. The Ag5.1 can now be synthesised in bacteria in sufficient amounts to analyse the immune response to this protein.     

A new species of entomopathogenic nematode Oscheius safricana n. sp. (Nematoda: Rhabditidae) from South Africa

In a recent entomopathogenic nematode (EPN) survey in the North West province of South Africa, Oscheius safricana was isolated from soil samples using the Galleria mellonella bait method. Morphological studies using light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy, molecular analysis of the internal transcribed spacer region (ITS), D2\D3 expansion segments of the large subunit rDNA gene (LSU) and concise small subunit rDNA gene (SSU), revealed that it was a new species, described herein as Oscheius safricana n. sp. Oscheius safricana n. sp. was characterised by unique ribosomal DNA sequences, amphidelphic reproduction, six separate lips each two bristle-like sensillae, narrow pharynx, valvated basal bulb, lateral field with four lines, leptoderan and closed bursa and fused spicules. This EPN belongs to the group Insectivorus and is morphologically closest to O. necromenus, O. chongmingensis and O. carolinensis. Oscheius safricana n. sp. is symbiotically associated with Serratia marcescens strain MCB.

http://www.zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:642E1B7E-B88F-4CE0-9D06-4FA9ECA48847     

Reduced levels of cytochrome bf complex in transgenic tobacco leads to marked photochemical reduction of the plastoquinone pool,without significant change in acclimation to irradiance

Tobacco transgenics with decreased amounts of the FeS apoprotein were generated using an antisense RNA construct targeted against the nuclear-encoded Rieske FeS protein of cytochrome bf complex [Price et al. (1995) Aust J Plant Physiol 22: 285–297]. FeS phenotypes ranging from intermediate to low were obtained which had 69% and 26% of the Rieske FeS protein of wild type. Similar reductions in the other subunits of cytochrome bf complex, cytochrome f, cytochrome b₅₆₃and the 17 kDa subunit, were demonstrated in the thylakoids of intermediate and low FeS phenotypes. Confirmation that the levels of assembled cytochrome bf in leaves matched the levels of the FeS protein was demonstrated by laser flash-induced redox absorbance changes in leaves, with the extents of cytochrome f oxidation and cytochrome b₅₆₃reduction being equivalent to the decreased amounts of the subunits in isolated thylakoids of the antisense plants. Despite greatly enhanced photochemical reduction of Q_Aand the plastoquinone pool in the antisense plants, light acclimation of the FeS phenotypes to irradiance did not occur. Furthermore, the state 1–state 2 transitions were identical in wild type and antisense plants. Our results suggest that neither Q_Anor the plastoquinone pool acts alone in either the redox control of gene expression or the regulation of light energy distribution between the photosystems. We suggest rather that reduced plastoquinone acting at the inner Q_psite of cytochrome bf complex is involved in molecular redox signalling.