Biotechnological Production of Plant-Based Insecticides

ABSTRACT:?

The demand for natural and nonpersistent insecticides is increasing day by day. Plant cell cultures could be an alternative to conventional methods of production of insecticides from field-grown plants. In vitro cultured plant cells produce a wide array of insecticides as a part of their secondary metabolism. Their ability to synthesize key enzymes and the manipulation of these could lead to the enhanced production of many insecticides of industrial importance. The development of a high-yielding hairy root culture system for thiophenes, nicotine, and phytoecdysones is of considerable interest. In this article, the current literature on various factors that influence the growth, production, and secretion of six insecticidal compounds, namely, pyrethrins, azadirachtin, thiophenes, nicotine, rotenoids, and phytoecdysones which have been prospects for the scale-up of cell cultures, genetic engineering to obtain transgenic plants, and metabolically engineered plants for increased production of bio-molecules, has been discussed. Environmental safety clearance and the future prospects of application of bio-molecules for plant-derived insecticides are presented.     

3 Origins and evolution of the translation machinery

The protein synthesis machinery largely evolved prior to the last common ancestor and hence its study can provide insight to early events in the origin of life, including the transition from the hypothetical RNA world to living systems as we know them. By utilizing information from primary sequences, atomic resolution structures, and functional properties of the various components, it is possible to identify timing relationships (Hsiao et al., 2009; Fox, 2010). Taken together, these timing events are used to develop a preliminary time line for major evolutionary events leading to the modern protein synthesis machinery. It has been argued that a key initial event was the hybridization of two or more RNAs that created the peptidyl transferase center, (PTC), of the ribosome (Agmon et al. 2005). The PTC, left side of figure, contains a characteristic cavity/pore that serves as the entrance to the exit tunnel and is thought to be essential to the catalysis (Fox et al., 2012). This cavity is distinct from typical RNA pores (right side of figure) in that the nitrogenous bases face towards the lumen of the pore and thus are available for hydrogen bonding interactions. In typical RNA pores, the bases carefully avoid the lumen region. In support of Agmon et al. 2005), it is argued that this key difference reflects the fact the pore was created by an early hybridization event rather than normal RNA folding.     

The Conformational Analysis of Substance P Analogs Using High-Field NMR Techniques

Abstract

High-field nuclear magnetic resonance measurements were carried out on substance P fragments SP_4–11 [pGlu⁵]-SP_5–11 and [pGlu⁶]SP_6–11 both at 400 and at 500 MHz. A spectral simulation was carried out on two of these peptides and the coupling constants were interpreted in terms of the conformations. The J_NH-CHa coupling constants are all ～8 Hz, with the exception of glycine, indicating no preferred conformation for the backbone. For the amino acids other than p-Glu, a comparison of the coupling constant data suggests the same relative rotamer populations for the side chains. Proton longitudinal relaxation time data were measured for all three peptides and support the above conclusions.     

A GHF7 CELLULASE FROM THE PROTIST SYMBIONT COMMUNITY OF Reticulitermes flavipes ENABLES MORE EFFICIENT LIGNOCELLULOSE PROCESSING BY HOST ENZYMES

Termites and their gut microbial symbionts efficiently degrade lignocellulose into fermentable monosaccharides. This study examined three glycosyl hydrolase family 7 (GHF7) cellulases from protist symbionts of the termite Reticulitermes flavipes. We tested the hypotheses that three GHF7 cellulases (GHF7‐3, GHF7‐5, and GHF7‐6) can function synergistically with three host digestive enzymes and a fungal cellulase preparation. Full‐length cDNA sequences of the three GHF7s were assembled and their protist origins confirmed through a combination of quantitative PCR and cellobiohydrolase (CBH) activity assays. Recombinant versions of the three GHF7s were generated using a baculovirus‐insect expression system and their activity toward several model substrates compared with and without metallic cofactors. GHF7‐3 was the most active of the three cellulases; it exhibited a combination of CBH, endoglucanase (EGase), and β‐glucosidase activities that were optimal around pH 7 and 30°C, and enhanced by calcium chloride and zinc sulfate. Lignocellulose saccharification assays were then done using various combinations of the three GHF7s along with a host EGase (Cell‐1), beta‐glucosidase (β‐glu), and laccase (LacA). GHF7‐3 was the only GHF7 to enhance glucose release by Cell‐1 and β‐glu. Finally, GHF7‐3, Cell‐1, and β‐glu were individually tested with a commercial fungal cellulase preparation in lignocellulose saccharification assays, but only β‐glu appreciably enhanced glucose release. Our hypothesis that protist GHF7 cellulases are capable of synergistic interactions with host termite digestive enzymes is supported only in the case of GHF7‐3. These findings suggest that not all protist cellulases will enhance saccharification by cocktails of other termite or fungal lignocellulases.     

Conformational Analysis of the Type II and Type III Collagen α-1 Chain C-Telopeptides by 1H NMR and Circular Dichroism Spectroscopy

Abstract

The type II and type III collagen α-1 chain C-telopeptides are a 27 mer with the sequence NAc- GPGIDMSAFAGLGPREKGPDPLQYMRA and a 22mer, NAc-GGGVASLGAGEKGPVG- YGYEYR, respectively. Their conformations have been studied in CD₃OH/H₂O (80/20) solution by means of two-dimensional proton NMR and CD spectroscopy. Based on TOCSY and NOESY experiments, all resonances were assigned and the conformational properties were analyzed in terms of vicinal NH-H_α coupling constants, sequential and medium range NOEs and amide proton temperature coefficients.

The conformation of the type II C-telopeptide is essentially extended. Evidence from CD spectroscopy suggests that a very minor proportion of the peptide might be helical (ca. 8%), but the NMR data show no evidence for a non-linear structure. The observation of reduced amide proton temperature dependence coefficients in certain sections of the molecule can, in view of the absence of any other supporting evidence, only be interpreted in terms of local shielding from solvent for sterical reasons (large hydrophobic side-chains).

The conformation of the type III C-telopeptide is mostly extended except for a β-turn ranging from Gly⁸ to Glu¹¹, which is stabilized by a hydrogen-bond between NH of Glu¹¹ and the carbonyl group of Gly⁸. The low temperature coefficient of NH(Glu¹¹) and, in particular, the observation of a medium range NOE between H_α (A⁹) and NH(E¹¹) corroborate the existence of a β-turn in this region. Although spectral overlap prevents a precise conclusion with regard to the type of β-turn present, there is some evidence that it might be type II.     

Subunit Secondary Structure in Filamentous Viruses: Predictions and Observations

Abstract

The algorithm of Gamier, Osguthorpe and Robson (J. Mol. Biol. 120, 97–120, 1978) for prediction of protein secondary structure has been applied to the coat protein sequences of six filamentous bacteriophages: fd, Ifl, IKe, Pfl, Xf and Pf3. For subunits of Class I virions (fd, Ifl, IKe), the algorithm predicts a very high percentage of helix in comparison to other structure types, which is in accord with the results of laser Raman and circular dichroism measurements. For subunits of the Class II virions (Pfl, Xf, Pf3), the algorithm consistently predicts a predominance of β structure, which is compatible with the demonstrated facility for conversion of Class II subunits from α-helix to β-strand under appropriate experimental conditions (Thomas, Prescott and Day, J. Mol. Biol. 165, 321–356, 1983). Even when the algorithm is biased to favor helix, the Class II virion subunits are predicted to contain considerably more strand than helix. Qualitatively similar results are obtained using the algorithm of Chou and Fasman {Adv. Enzym. 47, 45–148,45-148). Therefore, both predictive and experimental methods indicate a distinction between Gass I and II subunits, which is reflected in a greater tendency of the latter to adopt other than uniform β-helical conformation. The results suggest a possible model for the disassembly of filamentous viruses which may involve the unraveling of coat protein helices at the N terminus.     

Growth factor transgenes interactively regulate articular chondrocytes

Adult articular chondrocytes lack an effective repair response to correct damage from injury or osteoarthritis. Polypeptide growth factors that stimulate articular chondrocyte proliferation and cartilage matrix synthesis may augment this response. Gene transfer is a promising approach to delivering such factors. Multiple growth factor genes regulate these cell functions, but multiple growth factor gene transfer remains unexplored. We tested the hypothesis that multiple growth factor gene transfer selectively modulates articular chondrocyte proliferation and matrix synthesis. We tested the hypothesis by delivering combinations of the transgenes encoding insulin‐like growth factor I (IGF‐I), fibroblast growth factor‐2 (FGF‐2), transforming growth factor beta1 (TGF‐β1), bone morphogenetic protein‐2 (BMP‐2), and bone morphogenetic protien‐7 (BMP‐7) to articular chondrocytes and measured changes in the production of DNA, glycosaminoglycan, and collagen. The transgenes differentially regulated all these chondrocyte activities. In concert, the transgenes interacted to generate widely divergent responses from the cells. These interactions ranged from inhibitory to synergistic. The transgene pair encoding IGF‐I and FGF‐2 maximized cell proliferation. The three‐transgene group encoding IGF‐I, BMP‐2, and BMP‐7 maximized matrix production and also optimized the balance between cell proliferation and matrix production. These data demonstrate an approach to articular chondrocyte regulation that may be tailored to stimulate specific cell functions, and suggest that certain growth factor gene combinations have potential value for cell‐based articular cartilage repair. J. Cell. Biochem. 114: 908–919, 2013. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Expression of an apoplast-directed, T-phylloplanin-GFP fusion gene confers resistance against Peronospora tabacina disease in a susceptible tobacco

Key message

Phylloplanins are plant-derived, antifungal glycoproteins produced by leaf trichomes. Expression of phylloplanin-GFP fusion gene to the apoplast of a blue mold susceptible tobacco resulted in increased resistance to this pathogen.

Abstract

Tobaccos and certain other plants secrete phylloplanin glycoproteins to aerial surfaces where they appear to provide first-point-of-contact resistance against fungi/fungi-like pathogens. These proteins can be collected by water washing of aerial plant surfaces, and as shown for tobacco and a sunflower phylloplanins, spraying concentrated washes onto, e.g., turf grass aerial surfaces can provide resistance against various fungi/fungi-like pathogens, in the laboratory. These results suggest that natural-product, phylloplanins may be useful as broad-selectivity fungicides. An obvious question now is can a tobacco phylloplanin gene be introduced into a disease-susceptible plant to confer endogenous resistance. Here we demonstrate that introduction of a tobacco phylloplanin gene—as a fusion with the GFP gene—targeted to the apoplasm can increase resistance to blue mold disease in a susceptible host tobacco.     

The neurobiology of adaptation to seasons: Relevance and correlations in bipolar disorders

ABSTRACT

Bipolar disorders (BDs) are severe and common psychiatric disorders. BD pathogenesis, clinical manifestations and relapses are associated with numerous circadian rhythm abnormalities. In addition, infradian fluctuations of mood, social activity, weight and sleep patterns are very frequent in BD. Disease course with a seasonal pattern (SP) occurs in approximately 25% of depressive and 15% of manic episodes, which is coupled to a more severe disease symptomatology. The pathophysiological mechanisms of seasonal effects in BD await clarification, with likely important clinical consequences. This review aims at synthesizing available data regarding the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms of seasonality in BD patients, with implications for future research directions in the study of seasonality in BD. Three factors are suggested to play significant roles in BD with SP, namely the suprachiasmatic nuclei, as well as the melatonergic and photoperiodism systems. It is proposed that BD with SP may be considered as a complex disorder resulting from the interaction of clock gene vulnerabilities and biological clock neuroplasticity, with environmental factors, such as the response to light. Light seems to play a key role in BD with SP, mainly due to two seasonal signaling pathways: a light to cortex serotonin transporter pathway, as well as a pathway connecting light to melatonin synthesis. This provides a theoretical framework for BD with SP, including for future research and clinical management. The review proposes that future research should explore markers of seasonality in BD, such as plasma melatonin, sleep–wake rhythms (with actigraphy) and genetic or epigenetic variants within the melatonin synthesis pathway. The role of light in driving BD with SP is an active area of research. Seasonality may also be intimately linked to wider aspects of BD, including via interactions with the gut microbiome, the gut–liver axis, cholesterol regulation, aspects of metabolic syndrome, vitamin D, decreased longevity, suicide risk and medication treatment targets. Further research on the role of seasonality in BD is likely to clarify the etiology, course and treatment of BD more widely.     

Chronotype preferences of college students from varied altitude backgrounds in Ethiopia

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to compare chronotype preferences of college students from high- and low-altitude backgrounds living in a tropical setting of Ethiopia. Chronotype (morningness–eveningness) is a preference for a given time of day for physical or mental activities. The present cross-sectional study employed Horne and Osteberg Morningness-Eveningness Questionnaires to evaluate chronotype preferences. The chronotype preference of 264 male college students from varied altitude backgrounds indicated significant differences (p < 0.001). Our findings confirm our hypothesis, of the prevalence of M-types dominant chronotype among college students at low than high altitude. However, we did not confirm our second hypothesis, since students from high-altitude backgrounds were generally I-type dominant chronotype. Similarly, students’ academic performances from low- compared to high-altitudes backgrounds also indicated significant differences (p < 0.003). Better academic performances were seen in students with I-type chronotype orientations from high altitudes.