The future of future-oriented cognition in non-humans: theory and the empirical case of the great apes

One of the most contested areas in the field of animal cognition is non-human future-oriented cognition. We critically examine key underlying assumptions in the debate, which is mainly preoccupied with certain dichotomous positions, the most prevalent being whether or not ‘real’ future orientation is uniquely human. We argue that future orientation is a theoretical construct threatening to lead research astray. Cognitive operations occur in the present moment and can be influenced only by prior causation and the environment, at the same time that most appear directed towards future outcomes. Regarding the current debate, future orientation becomes a question of where on various continua cognition becomes ‘truly’ future-oriented. We question both the assumption that episodic cognition is the most important process in future-oriented cognition and the assumption that future-oriented cognition is uniquely human. We review the studies on future-oriented cognition in the great apes to find little doubt that our closest relatives possess such ability. We conclude by urging that future-oriented cognition not be viewed as expression of some select set of skills. Instead, research into future-oriented cognition should be approached more like research into social and physical cognition.     

Age-related changes in photosensitive melanopsin-expressing retinal ganglion cells correlate with circadian rhythm impairments in sighted and blind rats

The melanopsin system consists of intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells containing the photopigment melanopsin (mRGCs). These mRGCs mediate several non-image-forming visual functions, including light entrainment of circadian rhythms. Here we evaluate age-related alterations of the melanopsin system and circadian rhythms in P23H line 1 (P23H-1) rats, a rodent model of retinitis pigmentosa (RP). In homozygous P23H-1 rats and wild-type control rats from the same genetic background (Sprague–Dawley), body temperature and locomotor activity were continuously monitored at 10-min intervals for 7 days, once every 4–5 weeks, between 2 and 24 months of age, using a telemetry transmitter. The distribution and number of mRGCs were assessed in control rats at 12, 18, and 24 months of age and in P23H-1 rats aged 12, 18, 24, and 30 months by immunostaining whole-mount retinas with antibodies against melanopsin. The mean density of mRGCs in control rats showed no significant variations when evaluated at 12 and 18 months of age, and fell by approximately 56% between 18 and 24 months of age. Meanwhile, a significant decrease in the mean number of mRGCs was found in 18-month-old P23H-1 rats as compared to 18-month-old control rats (81% decrease). Parametric and non-parametric analyses of the records showed a gradual age-dependent weakening of body temperature and locomotor activity circadian rhythms robustness in both control and P23H-1 rats from 2 to 24 months of age. However, body temperature and locomotor activity circadian patterns were less robust throughout the experiment in P23H-1 as compared to control rats, with lower amplitude, weaker coupling strength to environmental zeitgebers and higher fragmentation of the rhythms. The present study shows that the degeneration of photoreceptors and inner retinal neurons, characteristic of RP, has age-related degenerative effects on the melanopsin system and is associated with weaker circadian patterns.     

“The 3/3 Strategy”: A Successful Multifaceted Hospital Wide Hand Hygiene Intervention Based on WHO and Continuous Quality Improvement Methodology

Background

Only multifaceted hospital wide interventions have been successful in achieving sustained improvements in hand hygiene (HH) compliance.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Pre-post intervention study of HH performance at baseline (October 2007– December 2009) and during intervention, which included two phases. Phase 1 (2010) included multimodal WHO approach. Phase 2 (2011) added Continuous Quality Improvement (CQI) tools and was based on: a) Increase of alcohol hand rub (AHR) solution placement (from 0.57 dispensers/bed to 1.56); b) Increase in frequency of audits (three days every three weeks: “3/3 strategy”); c) Implementation of a standardized register form of HH corrective actions; d) Statistical Process Control (SPC) as time series analysis methodology through appropriate control charts. During the intervention period we performed 819 scheduled direct observation audits which provided data from 11,714 HH opportunities. The most remarkable findings were: a) significant improvements in HH compliance with respect to baseline (25% mean increase); b) sustained high level (82%) of HH compliance during intervention; c) significant increase in AHRs consumption over time; c) significant decrease in the rate of healthcare-acquired MRSA; d) small but significant improvements in HH compliance when comparing phase 2 to phase 1 [79.5% (95% CI: 78.2–80.7) vs 84.6% (95% CI:83.8–85.4), p<0.05]; e) successful use of control charts to identify significant negative and positive deviations (special causes) related to the HH compliance process over time (“positive”: 90.1% as highest HH compliance coinciding with the “World hygiene day”; and “negative”:73.7% as lowest HH compliance coinciding with a statutory lay-off proceeding).

Conclusions/Significance

CQI tools may be a key addition to WHO strategy to maintain a good HH performance over time. In addition, SPC has shown to be a powerful methodology to detect special causes in HH performance (positive and negative) and to help establishing adequate feedback to healthcare workers.     

Toxicity and mode of action of Bacillus thuringiensis Cry proteins in the Mediterranean corn borer, Sesamia nonagrioides (Lefebvre)

Sesamia nonagrioides is one of the most damaging pests of corn in Spain and other Mediterranean countries. Bt corn expressing the Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ab toxin is being grown on about 58,000 ha in Spain. Here we studied the mode of action of this Cry protein on S. nonagrioides (binding to specific receptors, stability of binding, and pore formation) and the modes of action of other Cry proteins that were found to be active in this work (Cry1Ac, Cry1Ca, and Cry1Fa). Binding assays were performed with (125)I- or biotin-labeled toxins and larval brush border membrane vesicles (BBMV). Competition experiments indicated that these toxins bind specifically and that Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab, and Cry1Ac share a binding site. Cry1Ca and Cry1Fa bind to different sites. In addition, Cry1Fa binds to Cry1A's binding site with very low affinity and vice versa. Binding of Cry1Ab and Cry1Ac was found to be stable over time, which indicates that the observed binding is irreversible. The pore-forming activity of Cry proteins on BBMV was determined using the voltage-sensitive fluorescent dye DiSC(3)(5). Membrane permeability increased in the presence of the active toxins Cry1Ab and Cry1Fa but not in the presence of the nonactive toxin Cry1Da. In terms of resistance management, based on our results and the fact that Cry1Ca is not toxic to Ostrinia nubilalis, we recommend pyramiding of Cry1Ab with Cry1Fa in the same Bt corn plant for better long-term control of corn borers.     

Jasminum polyanthum Franch. as a natural source of (−)‐methyl jasmonate: an alternative to the use of the synthetic standard

Introduction – Methyl jasmonate (MJ) contains two chiral centres at C‐3 and C‐7 in its chemical structure, which implies that it can exist in four possible stereoisomeric forms, namely (+)‐MJ, (?)‐MJ, (+)‐epiMJ and (?)‐epiMJ. The absolute configuration of the two side chains of MJ affects the biological activity associated with this compound. Objective – To isolate pure (?)‐MJ from a natural source, Jasminum polyanthum Franch., with the intention of increasing the knowledge about its biological properties, including its effect on the biosynthesis of plant metabolites. Methodology – The method used was based on steam distillation extraction (SDE) as an extraction technique followed by high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) as a purification procedure. The HPLC flow‐rate as well as the number of fractions accumulated were optimised to achieve the concentration and purity required. Results – The employment of 0.3 mL/min as HPLC flow‐rate and the accumulation of three HPLC fractions allowed the required enantiomeric purity (95%) and concentration (0.36 mg/L in each HPLC fraction) to efficiently obtain (?)‐methyl jasmonate from Jasminum polyanthum Franch. to be achieved. Conclusion – The approach proposed may enable the properties and effect of pure (?)‐MJ on plant responses to be studied. The use of a natural source to obtain (?)‐MJ is presented as an alternative to the enantioselective synthesis and enantiomeric resolution from the standard racaemic mixture. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A Sensitive Method to Monitor <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bacillus subtilis</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Streptomyces coelicor</Emphasis>-related Bacteria in Maize Rhizobacterial Communities: The Use of Genome-Wide Microarrays

Commercially available DNA microarrays containing genome-wide spotted oligonucleotides encompass the soil bacteria Bacillus subtilis or Streptomyces coelicolor genomes. These have been used to analyse potential differences in rhizobacterial communities of transgenic maize engineered to express the Bacillus thuringensis Cry toxin (Bt maize) in three different agricultural soils. No differences in hybridisation were observed between genetically and non-genetically modified maize rhizobacteria from two Bt lines with a detection sensitivity of five copies of a particular gene above the background. Soil-specific hybridisation results were obtained when rhizobacterial DNA was compared to the corresponding genomic DNA spotted in the microarrays suggesting that the use of genome-wide DNA arrays could serve as a useful tool for the molecular monitoring of rhizobacterial communities. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. An erratum to this article can be found at